establishing fortresses and defensive posts upon the points most exposed to invasion, ever entered into the policy of the Poles of the 17th century. The establish ment of the Russians in Livonia, placed Courland and Lithuania wholly in a situation which rendered the defence of them almost impossible. We will, in the first instance, take a glance at the history of these countries. The Esthonians and the Lieves or Livonians, are of Finnish origin; they ap pear to have been the most ancient in habitants of maritime Livonia and Courland Proper. The Lettons are evidently the same nation as the Lithuanians, their language and manners prove it in contestibly, but their origin is uncertain: it is, however, a fact, that the Lettons, as well in Livonia as in Courland, were constantly at variance with the Lieves, whom by degrees they oppressed and compelled to adopt the Lettonian language in their divine worship. At present, there are very few of the Lieves; they are confounded with the Lettons. From these two races is composed the mass of the people in the provinces of Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia. Bent under the same yoke, they yet preserve, on both sides, their national pride and their hereditary hatred: they rarely contract marriages together. Their mutual aversion is manifest even in the colour of their clothes: an Esthonian always wears brown, and a Lettoni never leaves off grey. Five nations successively have conquered and ruled over these provinces either wholly or in part; there still re. main some colonies more or less nume. rous, according to the periods they remained in tranquil possession. The Danes, Swedes, Germans, Poles, and Russians, are established here; the German language prevails in the cities; the nobility almost wholly derive their origin from the north of Germany; they conceive themselves far above the Rus gians and the Poles, whom they have, as it were, adopted: for this reason it is, that, in the provinces, every free individual of whatever nation he may be, is invariably called Deutsche, or German; and, on the contrary, all the peasants and serfs or vassale, are styled Undeutsche, not Germans. It is to the Bremeners we are indebied for the first certain information relative to Livonia. In the year 1158, a vessel from Bremen, bound to Wisby, in the island of Gothland, was driven by a storm into the gulf of Livonia, and to wards the estuary of the Dwina they discovered the country inhabited by the Lieves. That nation, in a state of halfsavage barbarism, permitted them to traffic; and it is to a colony which the Bremeners established, that the town of Riga owes its origin. In 1186, an ecclesiastic of Holstein began to preach the doctrine of christianity. It is, however, positively proved, that the Scandinavians had a long time previously visited these countries, sometimes as friends, sometimes as enemies; they were known to them under the name of Oest-land or the Eastern-land, from whence Estland. In 1196, Canute VI. King of Den mark, after having subdued the Wendes of Pomerania, fitted out an expedition to reduce Esthonia: it appears that his great general Absalon, who at the same time was an archbishop, gave his name to the city of Habsal. Canute VI. only conquered the islands, and a part of the coast. Waldemar II. surnamed the Victorious, resolved to connect these conquests with those which the Danes had made in Pomerania; and, as a pretext, he formed the plan of converting the Livonians to the Christian religion, the Pope sent him the celebrated redand-white standard, called Danebrog, which, in consequence, became the palladium of Denmark: in short, it was a re gular crusade. A fleet of four hundred vessels carried the Danish army; the largest of these vessels contained about an hundred and twenty men, the smallest about fourteen. The battle fought near Wolmar in 1220, laid all Livonia at the feet of the conqueror; the Livonians were converted, that is to say, were compelled to suffer baptism. The Prussians were next converted in a no less expeditious manner. Waldemar founded the cities of Narva, Revel, and some others; but after the three years captivity of this monarch, the conquered countries recovered their liberty. The Danes, however, still preserved some possessions in them. Esthonia remained faithful to them, at least the towns did; that part which they abandoned the last, was the Isle of Oesel, which, in 1645, was ceded to Sweden. Successive conquerors continued the crusade begun by the Danes. In 1901 was formed and instituted the order of "the Knights of Christ," which in the commencement had the same statutes as the the Templars, and recognized the bishop of Riga as their chief. While the good fortune of Waldemar continued, these knights could only be regarded as auxiliaries of the Danes; however, so early as 1206, Albert, bishop of Riga, had bestowed upon them the third part of Livonia, which he did not possess, and soon after the pope confirmed this singular donation. The first grandmaster of the order was Winno; he gave the knights the name of Ensiferi, or Sword-bearers. In the year 1238, they solemnly united themselves with the Teutonic order, and adopted all their statutes. These knights first subdued Livonia and Courland between 1230 and 1240. An age of batties and of victories extended their renown, but did not consolidate their power. In 1346 they purchased Esthonia from Waldemar, king of Denmark; in 1521 the grand-master Walter de Plettenberg, purchased from the grand-master of the Teutonic order in Prussia, the full sovereignty. By this contract the order of the Knights of the Sword became independent, and was admitted into the number of the states of the empire. About this time the reformation of Luther began to penetrate into Livonia: the dissension which these new religious opinions created, weakened the power of the knights. The Czar Iwan Wasilewitsch thought this a favourable opportunity to attempt the conquest of these countries: pressed by the Russians, the inhabitants of Revel and of Narva, placed themselves under the protection of Sweden. The grand-master Gothard Kettler ceded Livonia to the Poles, resigned his title of grand master, and in 1561 became the first Duke of Courland, after having done homage to Poland. Thus ended the state founded by the Knights of the Sword, after having continued for more than three centuries. Those Knights had civilized the Lettons and Esthonians, if we can call civilization the establishment of a privileged cast, and the reduction of the primitive nation to the most dreadful species of slavery. Sull, however, the greatest misfortunes of these countries did not commence till after the decay of the Knights of the Sword; their spoils became in a manner the apple of discord between Russia (then Muscovy), Sweden, and Poland. AL den in the possession of Esthonia ant Livonia. Courland remained subject to the sovereignty of Poland. The eighteenth century renewed afresh all the horrors of war in the very heart of these countries; they were almost totally laid waste by the Russians, who remained masters of them by the peace of Neustadt, in 1721. The tranquillity which these provinces have enjoyed since they became part of the Russian empire, has not, however, been sufficient to heal those wounds which war, pestilence, and famine, inflicted on them at the commencement of the last century. Although more advantageously situated than any other province of northern Russia, although connected by the same language, and even customs, with Germany, these countries cannot, however, be reckoned amongst the best peopled or best cultivated, parts of the empire. The vassalage and servitude of the peasantry is the chief obstacle to political and economical civilization. The peasantry here is nearly, if not entirely, upon the same footing that the slaves were with the ancient Romans. Their lords or masters, are not obliged to, nor do they, allow generally more than what is barely necessary for their subsistence; they can sell or change them at their pleasure; separate the husband from the wife, the parent from the child; and exercise every sort of uncontrouled and unlimited power over them, as though they were merely animals born for their use. For these rights and privileges of the nobility did the celebrated Patkul contend: if the nobles have not the power of life and death, it is to Sweden that humanity owes this soothing reflection, the Swedish govern ment having deprived the nobility of all criminal jurisdiction. The Emperor Alexander has even forced the nobility* to other reforms mild as salutary. Courland alone should now occupy our attention more particularly. This state, formerly a vassal of Poland, since the year 1795 forms a Russian govern ment under the same name. Over an extent of surface of 452 square miles (German), or 1,255 square leagues, is scattered a population of 404,266 individuals, which gives 322 to each square league. The following is the These reforms were the consequence ter a century of almost continual wars, the of the German work of Merkel, entitled, treaty of Oliva in 1660, confirmed Swe-Die Letten," The Lattons. comparative Courland, situated between the 56th and 58th degrees of north latitude, enjoys a salubrious air, but is subject to frequent and sudden changes of heat and cold Gales of wind are common; yet the men are robust, and arrive at a good old age. The aspect of the country is agreeably diversified with hill and dale, forests of pines, and groves of oak. The soil, with the exception of the neighbourhood of Windau and Golding, is of a rich loamy clay. The cultivation of flax succeeds the best. Corn is not sown till the month of June, but eight weeks is sufficient to bring it to perfection. The meadows are, for the most part, under water during the winter. They say, that the slime left by the waters contributes to their richness; owing to this opinion, the inhabitants, for three years successively, drain the marshes, and sow them with summer grain for three years after: they let in the waters, and stock them with fish. The forests abound with game, the sea and rivers with fish; there are marble quarries, and iron and coal-mines, but they are not worked: on the coast are found quantities of amber. Courland exports wheat, barley, oats, timber for building, hemp, flax, pot-ash, hides, furs, feathers, salt and smoked meat, wax, honey, rosin, tallow, amber, beer, and malt-spirits; but it is to be observed, that many of these articles come principally from the other provinces of the interior of the Russian empire: potash, for instance, from Lithuania; hides from Pieskow; and furs from Siberia. It appears that establishments of in. dustry are reduced to very little. thors make mention of only one iron and one copper-foundery; even the most necessary trades are often wanting in the towns; the villages, however, have a tolerable appearance: much more cleanliness prevails in the inns than in Po. land. Beds are to be found in them, a Au luxury rarely to be met with anong lower order of the Poles. the Mittau is the capital of the country, and was formerly the residence of the Duke; the Lettonians call it Ielgawa. In 1795 it contained 12,350 inhabitants, of whom 5,120 were Germans, 3,546 Lettonians, 1,200 Jews, 243 Russians, &c. This city is of a great extent, but contains within its walls a vast number of gardens and vacant spaces of ground. The new castle, close to the city, is by far too magnificent a structure for so small a state. There is a Gymnasium, with a library, and an astronomical observa tory. Libau, containing about 5,000 souls, possesses a roadstead and a shallow barbour; about 260 or 270 vessels generally Not enter, one year with another. long since, the importations amounted to the value of 931,551 rubles; the ex2.028,520 rubles; but the city of Libau ports, on the contrary, amounted to gives no favourable idea either of the riches or industry of its inhabitants. 900 inhabitants, carries on a considerWindau, although possessing but about able trade. Golding, a town of 1,000 inhabitants, has very important fisheries in the river Windau. Jacobstadt, a small town on the Dwina, is one of the principal residences of those idlers who lead the dancing bears over Europe: these artists have here a sort of academy. The lake of Sauken is situated in the parish of Jacobstadt. The natives presion of the earth, and a sinking in of the tend that it owes its origin to a convul space which swallowed up all the vi cinity with its inhabitants. What gives a colour to this opinion is, that very fre quently in the fishermen's nets are found pieces of wood, which seem to have be longed to some buildings. Before we take our leave of Courland, we must notice the promontory of DoLivonia and the Baltic Sea; it forms the mesues, which is between the gulf of north point of Courland; it is a bank of sand and rocks, very dangerous for vessels bound to Riga: it was the northern point of the territories of Poland before the dismemberment. of Courland, bore a great resemblance to The political constitution of the Duchy Since famous by being the residence of Louis XVIII. who, however, was cruelly obliged to quit even that asylum. that own that of Poland; it was a republic of the state. They decided, at their own pleasure, upon all differences between their subjects, and could even inflict corporal punishment at their option; so that a noble could punish one of his vassals whenever he thought fit; but flogging by the public executioner, and banishments, were very rare, because the estate would thereby lose a subject, whose preservation interested the proprietor. If a peasant was accused of any capital offence, the lord of the soil. was obliged by the statutes, under a penalty of an hundred florins, to cause him to be tried by a criminal court composed of nobles. To the honour of the individuals it should be mentioned, that this despotic power was very rarely exercised in a tyrannical manner. which the nobles were the citizen-sovereigns, under the presidency of a duke. The Poles pretended to unite this - duchy with their republic after the extinction of the house of Gothard Kettler, whom we have already mentioned; but the nobility of Courland, supported by Russia, maintained their right to choose a new prince. Poland was forced to ac. quiesce in 1736. Soon after the Courlanders received orders from their august protectress, the Czarina Elizabeth, to elect the adventurer Biron, whom they before would not even adinit into their body as a simple noble. From that period, Courland was in fact no more than a province of Russia; and, in order to confirm their dependance, in 1795 the Courlanders demanded to be incorporated with the empire of the Czars. The nobility of Courland, proud of their descent from the ancient Knights of the Sword, tenaciously kept up the dism tinction between the ancient and modern nobility. The ancients are those whose ancestors assisted at the last meetings of the knights in 1020, 1631, and 1634; they reckon several new families since that time, who are not comprised in the list of the members of these assemblies. No knight of the new order can acquire any dignity, or hold any superior employment. A gentleman of Courland enjoys the indigenat in Poland, the same as a Pole enjoys it in Courland; but neither the one nor the other can claim the privileges attached to this right, but from the time they were settled in either country. The laws exempt the vassals of the noblesse, and all those attached to their service, from all taxes and imposts upon whatever belongs to them. Their Estates were exempted from the quartering of troops upon them; they possessed their domains in full sovereignty; and, in order to preserve the family, they enjoyed the right of primogeniture: they paid no sort of taxes but in time of war, as vassals of Polaud, to serve on horseback. In 1727, the contingent of the nobility was fixed by a convention at 200 horse, and about as many infantry; they could, however, claim an exemption from this by paying 30,000 crowns for the first year of the war, and 10,000 for every year after during its continuance. The nobility had solely under their own dependance all subjects born on their estates; they could even make byelaws for them, provided there was nothing contrary to the common laws of 1 The Duke, in his quality as vassal, was obliged to furnish Poland with 200 cavalry, or 500 infantry; he was not even permitted in time of peace, to keep more than 500 regular troops in pay; his revenues were very considerable; they arose principally from the customs, the feudal taxes, and the ducal domains, which were supposed to consist of onethird of the duchy: the total of these different revenues was valued at three millions two hundred and fifty thousand Polish florins. About the middle of the 17th century, Duke James considerably increased his revenues: he concluded treaties of commerce with different powers of Europe; and in 1664, England ceded to him the Island of Tobago in the West Indies. He even fitted out some ships of war for other powers; and in 1652, he sent the King of Poland, independently of his contingent as a vassal of that power, a thousand auxiliary infantry. W. B, H. To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine. SIR, SEND you a pleasing picture of the mode of life of a catholic bishop at Castello Branco, in Portugal, well worthy the consideration of our heads of cathedrals, taken from a modern AcCount of Portugal, by a clergyman attending General Moore's unfortunate army: by publishing it you will do your duty, as every thing that tends to lessen the prejudices of mankind against each other's religious principles, is serviceable to the whole world. "We were lodged at the bishop's palace, and found him a man of most amiable and interesting manners. He is far advanced in years, and uncorrupted by commerce with the world; has a primitive and patriarchal simplicity in every word and look, and gesture. When I first saw him, he was employed in carrying fruit for our entertainment into the parlour; and I was, you may sup pose, somewhat surprised to find him occupied by so humble an office. His lordship and three agreeable priests dined with us on the day of our arrival: the next being a fast-day, they sat at table, and carved for us, but did not partake: there was a liberality and con descension in this, which pleased me much. We were attended, during din ner, by four familiares. "The chaplain, an intelligent young man, informed me, that the value of the see was thirty thousand crusados novos a year, or four thousand five hundred pounds sterling; but that the bishop was by no means rich, for one-third of his income went to the poor, one to hospitality, and the remainder to the repair and maintenance of his churches: this Is the ancient division of monastic wealth; and in those countries where celibacy is enjoined to the clergy, a more just and proper one could not have been For the Monthly Magazine. Falings by Mrs. Solway's do Wick heath, round the King's Nursery into the great Portsmouth road, near the 20 mile-stone, turn up short to the left, and making for the clumps of firs in the heath, on a high bill to the left, pass by a farm-house and enter a narrow lane just beyond in a corner, which leads down a steep hill to Stroud. green; keep to the right till you ascend to St. Ann's-heath, keep the left green road on the heath, and enter the first turning on the right, which takes you to Trump's-mill, where you pass a brick bridge, and soon come to a direction post, where four roads meet; go on under St. Ann's-hill, on the Chertsey road, till you skirt the park-paling of Mr. Fox's delightful seat, at the end of which is a public-house, where you may leave your horse, and ascend on foot about half-a-mile or less to the house, beyond which is a white bench, where there is a fine prospect from the top of St. Ann's hill. By swerving two miles and a half to the left, you may visit Botley's, Sir J. Mawby's, and Attershaw, the seat of two considerable parks: but you must return from Attershaw by Bowsley-farm and Ongar-hill, across Orockford common to Woburnplace; thence to Weybridge, close to which lies Oatlands, the seat of the Duke of York. Proceed along the side of Oatlands to Burwood-park, pass through the park by Burhill, about half a mile beyond to Burwood-house and Pain's bill, (which is a straight line of about two miles above the river Mole from Burwood-park-gate to Pain's-hill) late the seat of B. Bond Hopkins; from Pain's hill, about a mile of good road brings you to Cobham, where you cross the Mole, and see Mr. Perry's very wild and beautiful park; cross Cobham-common by Mr. Page's new farm, a straight and good road into Bookham-common; by a gate, take a sweep to the left round the top of the bill, among some loose trees, and following the park-paling of East wick-park, which you see before you, enter a lane at the corner of the common where you see a house, and arrive at great Bookham, where there is a good in, and Eastwich-park; cross the Guildford road here, and proceed across a fine sloping common field to Polsden arbour, through a beautiful natural avenue to Polsden, the delightful seat of Mr. Sheridan; from whence a lovely lane, through groves, leads to Banmer-common (a common of no common sort). Here ask for the Fox public-house, which is at the top of the hill, a httle to the left, and they will direct you where to enter the wood at Baumer, that leads down a narrow lane to Combe Farm, now occu pied by a Mr. Steadman, and which stands in the bottom of a lovely valley. Pass through his farm-yard up to the par sonage, where is a most rural habitation (Mr.Tyler's); pass through his farm-yard, and descend, leaving a chapel and white house to the right; from whence a sloping hill leads you to a gate that opens opposite a clean white public-house, where Sir |
