at the time of the death of Kemal Ataturk. The new cabinet re-elected Ismet Inonu. Military service is compulsory, 18 months in the infantry, two years in the other services and three years in the Navy. Men are called up at the age of 20 and liability continues for 26 years. Since the outbreak of the war, the Army has been maintained at war strength by calling up reservists, premature calling of new classes and reclassifying men previously exempted. Reorganization of the Navy, started before the war, continues and the effective fleet comprises one battle cruiser, two cruisers, two gunboats and miscellaneous small craft. The effective strength is approximately 800 officers and 4,000 men. Turkey adopted (1935) a Five-year plan for industrialization of the country and the next year adopted a second Five-year plan for mining and electrification. Agriculture is the chief industry of the Turks, products being tobacco. which goes to almost all world marts; cereals, cotton, figs, nuts, fruits of almost all varieties, opium and gums. About 20 million acres are in forests. Turkey has large mineral resources, not yet developed, including chrome ore, zinc, manganese, antimony, copper, borax, emery, asphalt, meerschaum, some coal and lignite, salt, some gold and silver. and petroleum on lands bordering the Marmora Sea. The monetary unit is the plaster with an average value of $.80. Budget estimates (1940-1941) are receipts 268,481,000 Turkish pounds; expenditures, 268.476.321. A pound equals 100 piasters. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (RUSSIA) Capital, Moscow-Area, 8,819,791 square miles-Population (est. 1940). 192,695,710 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics-in area the largest country in the world-stretches across two continents from the North Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Finland. It occupies the northern part of Asia and the eastern half of Europe, from the Arctic to the Black Sea. Its western borders brush against Finland, the Baltic Sea, Germany (Poland), Hungary and Rumania. On the south it is bounded by Rumania, the Black Sea, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, China, Mongol People's Republic and Manchukuo. aristocracy, now sanatoria for the people, contrast with the picturesque villages of the Crimeans, a mixture of Tartar, Turk and Russian. The highway from Sevastopol along the shores of the Black Sea looks on a steadily-changing panorama of mountains and flourishing valleys studded with quaint Tartar villages. The highway winds past Yalta, Alupka, Mischor, Massandra, Gurzuf-a chain of health resorts washed by the warm waters of the Black Sea. The vast territory of the U. S. S. R., one-sixth of the earth's land surface, contains every phase of climate, except the distinctly tropical, and a varied topography. The European portion is a vast low plain with the Ural mountains on its eastern edge, the Crimean and Caucasian mountains on the south and southeast. The Urals, separating the European from the Asiatic portions of the country, stretch north and south for 2,500 miles. The Asiatic portion of the U. S. S. R. also consists largely of an immense plain, with mountain ranges on its eastern and southern borders. The rivers are important as actual or potential channels of commerce. In the European section these include the Dnieper, flowing into the Black Sea, and the Volga and the Ural, flowing into the Caspian Sea. The Asiatic section is drained by three great rivers, the Ob, the Yenisei and the Lena, each over 2500 miles long, flowing into the Arctic Ocean, and contains several large rivers in the south, including the Amur, which flows into the Pacific Ocean. The northern rivers and the Arctic coastline of 4,000 miles have been opened to navigation during recent years. The area of the Soviet Union contains virtually every material natural resource of modern civilization--minerals of all kinds, base and precious; every variety of timber, except tropical; every character of cereal, vegetable and fruit lands. About 38% of the territory of the Soviet Union is timber area, 3,124,360 square miles. Land potentially suitable for agriculture is estimated at upwards of 1,037,400,000 acres, of which about oneeighth is under cultivation. Potential hydraulic resources are estimated at 280,000,000 kilow itts. now Known mineral resources include: coal, peat, oil, iron ore, manganese, copper, zinc and lead. The capital of this vast country is Moscow, a city of great charm, called the nerve center of the Soviet Union. Its lofty modern structures tower over quaint remnants of Czarist Russia; ancient winding streets enter unexpectedly into spacious squares with shining Metro stations, fresh flower-beds and trees. Here is the famous Kremlin, the citadel of Moscow enclosing the former palace of the Czar. and Leningrad (formerly St. Petersburg and Petrograd), situated on the delta of the Neva River and spread out over many islands, is the center of science and research in the U. S. S. R. It is a city of museums and palaces, including the "Museum of the Revolution," the pre-war Winter Palace, the Palace of Count Stroganoff, built by Rastrelli, the Catherine and Alexander Palaces at Detskoe Selo, and the terraced fountains and palaces of Peterhof. Priceless paintings of Rubens, Valesquez and Titian adorn the walls of the Hermitage Museum. Kiev, the 1,000-year-old capital of the Ukrainian U. S. S. R. is a busy industrial city and the scientific center of the Ukrainian Republic. The ancient Kiev-Perchersky Monastery, now converted into a historical museum, presents an outstanding example of medieval Slavonic architecture. The Crimea is called the vacationland of the Soviet Union. Shining palaces of the former The Caucasus is the most scenic part of the Soviet Union. It is a land of ever-varying scenery where glaciers alternate with sub-tropical vegetation, a land where medieval mountain hamlets are just a few hours' ride from great power stations. The stretch of coast between the Caucasus Mountain Range and the sea is known as the "Black Sea Riviera": Sochi. Matsesta. Cagry, Sukhum and Batum are some of the famous resort towns. The new Soviet constitution (adopted Dec. 5, 1936), replacing that of 1924, divided the country into eleven Union Republics, each with its separate government for local affairs, patterned on the Union Government. A twelfth Union Republic, the Karelo-Finnish, was formed (1940), followed by the Moldavian, the thirteenth; the Lithuanian, the fourteenth; the Latvian, the fifteenth, and the Estonian, the sixteenth, all in the same year. The Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, with nearly two-thirds of the entire population of the Union and upwards of three-fourths of the area, is the largest and most important of the Union Republics. A list of the Union Republics, with areas and populations, follows: Russian S. F. S. R.. Ukrainian S. S. R Pop. 109,278,614 Area, Sq. Mi. 38,960,221 49,022 10,367,976 11,580 1,281,599 26,865 3,542.289 Azerbaijan S. S. R. 32,956 3,209.727 Lithuanian S. S. R. Latvian S. S. R Total U. S. S. R. The twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth Union Republics were occupied by German and Finnish forces (1941) in the war between U. S. S. R. and the Reich. Large sections of White Russia, the Ukraine and parts of the Byelorussian and Moldavian Republics also were occupied by the Axis forces, including the section of Poland awarded to Russia in the German-Soviet partition. The census (1939) gives 18.6 per cent of the population (Arctic regions not included) as below the age of 7, and 41 per cent between the ages of 15 and 39, with 6.6 more than 60 years old. It gives 81.2 per cent of the population as literate, or 90.8 per cent of the men and 72.6 per cent of the women. Illiteracy was to have been entirely cleared up by the completion of the second fiveyear plan at the end of January, 1938. [In 1926, literacy of the population of the Soviet Union above the age of 9 was put at 51 per cent.] As to education, 8.86 per cent of the population was found to have secondary school training and 0.64 per cent university training. By nationality Russians made up 58.41 per cent of the population of 170,000,000 in the Soviet Union, Ukrainians 16.56 per cent and White Russians 3.11 per cent. Jews, of whom there were 3,020,141 in the Soviet Union, made up 1.78 per cent and the Germans, numbering 1,423,534, or 0.84 per cent. There were forty-nine recognized nationalities, plus more than 1,800,000 persons of other national groups. The constitution (1936) provides for universal direct suffrage with the secret ballot. The first election under the new constitution was held (Dec. 12, 1937) when 90,319,346 persons recorded their vote, or 96.5 per cent of the total voting population of the U. S. S. R. As a result of the fulfillment of the Second Five Year Plan the export of machinery by the Soviet Union has increased rapidly, especially in agricultural implements and automobiles. Co-incident with the industrial increase there has been a distinct advance in educational facilities. The autonomous republics, each of which is represented by eleven deputies in the Council of Nationalities. form the most important of the various subdivisions of the Union Republics. The population (1939 census) was announced by the Government as 170,467,186, including 81,664,981 men and 88,802,205 women, a total gain of 15.9 per cent over the 1926 figures. A movement toward the cities was indicated in an urban population (1939) of 32.9 compared with (1926) 17.9. After the re-union of Western Ukraine and Western Byelorussia, the population of the U. S. S. R. increased to 183,267,000. The creation of the Karelo-Finnish, Moldavian, Lithuanian, Latvia and Estonian Republics increased the population to 192,695,710. The Russian Soviet Socialist Federated Republic (Soviet Russia proper), contains nearly 70% of the population of the Soviet Union and includes 78% of its territory. Its territories stretch from the Estonian, Latvian and Finnish borders and the White Russian and Ukrainian lines on the west, to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and from the Arctic Ocean on the north to the shores of the Black and Caspian seas and the borders of Kezak S. S. R., Mongolia and Manchuria on the south. The capital is Moscow. Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (White Russia), was proclaimed Jan. 1, 1919. Under the Czars Byelorussia was the pale of settlement of the Jewish population. It suffered greatly from periodical pogroms and from interracial struggles. Between 1914 and 1920 it was a field for military operations. The racial composition is Byelorussians 80.6%; Jews, 10%; others, Russians. Ukrainians, Poles. Minsk is the capital with a population of 238,772 (1939). The country is agricultural. Much of the land is marshy, but modern drainage methods have increased the arable area. Principal crops are flax, grain and potatoes. Chief industries include woodworking, matches, linen, paper, leather, oil pressing, glass. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic is the most densely populated of the Constituent Republics. It borders on the Black Sea, with Germany, Hungary and Rumania on the west and southwest. The capital is Kiev, population (1939) 846,293. Of the population 80% are Ukrainians. 9.5% Russians. 5.4% Jews, 1.6% Poles, and 3.5% Greeks. Bulgarians, Rumanians, Gypsies. There are also about 800.000 Ukrainians living in other portions of the Soviet Union. The Ukraine contains the famous black soil belt, the chief wheat-producing section of the Soviet Union. Sugar beets and oil seeds are important crops and livestock breeding is rapidly advancing. In the Donetz Basin the Ukraine has a huge storage of coal, iron and other metals. Here are produced 54.1% of the coal mined in the country, 59.1% of the iron and a large proportion of the manganese. There are heavily developed chemical and dye industries and salt mines. Electric power development is making rapid advances and in the rural districts more than 200.000 farms are supplied with current. The largest hydro-electric development in Europe. constructed on the Dnieper River and known as the Lenin Hydroelectric Station, with an ultimate capacity of 558,000 kilowatts, was dynamited (1941) by Russia during the war with Germany. The three Soviet Socialist Republics of Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia were formed under the new Constitution (1936) by a splitting-up of the Transcaucasian Federation. Azerbaijan has in the vicinity of Baku the most important oll fields in the U. S. S. R. Its natural wealth includes deposits of pyrites, barites and fossil copal, as well as zinc, silver, gold, copper, tin vanadium and molybdenum. Establishment of large irrigation projects during recent years has made cotton growing important of recent years a high quality Egyptian type cotton has been grown. Three-fifths of the population is composed of Azerbaijanians, a Turkish people. Georgia, in western Transcaucasus, contains the largest manganese mines in the world. There are rich timber resources. Large coal deposits have recently been discovered. Output of industrial machinery has become important of recent years. Grain and wine grapes are principal crops. The population includes two-thirds Georgians. Mountainous Armenia with its arid valleys has been transformed by irrigation of recent years into a country of orchards and vineyards, of cotton and tobacco plantations. Copper and lead mining have been developed and a diversified industry has grown up. The population is 85% Armenian. The Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic in Central Asia were organized (1924). The Uzbek Republic contains the finest cotton lands in the Soviet Union. A high quality caracul fur is produced for export. Its mineral wealth includes coal, sulphur, copper and oil. In the Turkmen Republic principal crops are cotton, grain and oil seeds. Mineral wealth includes oil, coal, sulphur, barite. lime gypsum. The Kara Kum desert occupies fourfifths of the territory. Tajikistan, in the extreme south of Central Asia. bordering on Afghanistan and China, was raised from an autonomous republic in Uzbekistan to a federal republic (1929). It is a land of high mountains traversed by narrow valleys. Cotton and grain are principal crops. Mineral wealth includes lead, zinc. silver, cadmium, uranium. vanadium, molybdenum. The Kazak Soviet Socialist Republic and the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic, respective capitals Alma Ata and Frunze, were organized under the constitution (1936) from portions of the Russian Republic. The Kazak Republic occupies one-seventh of the territory of the entire Soviet Union. It has great oil deposits in the Ural-Emba district and its coal deposits in the Karaganda coal basin form the third largest coal basin in the country. There are rich deposits of copper, lead and other nonferrous metals. Agricultural output includes grain, wheat and livestock. Mineral resources of the Kirghiz Republic include coal, oil, lead, zinc, copper, gold, silver and tin. Crops include wheat, rice. sugar beets, tobacco, kendyr and fruits. The Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic was formed (1940) from the territory ceded to the Soviet by the peace treaty with Finland at the close of the war. Seventy per cent of the territory is covered with woods (pine and other). The population is mainly Karelians, Finns and Russians. The mineral resources are copper, lead, zinc, silver and iron. The territory has 26,000 small lakes, and also includes the two largest lakes in Europe, Ladoga and Onega. The Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was created (1940) when Rumania returned to the U. S. S. R. the province of Bessarabia and the northern sections of Bukowina, which had been taken from Russia after the close of the World War. The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was voted into the U. S. S. R. (1940) after Soviet troops had occupied the country, charging a violation of a mutual assistance pact. Elections were held and a Communist dominated Parliament was chosen. The vote showed 99.19 per cent for the Working People's Bloc. Ballots were cast by 1,386,569 persons. The new Parliament proclaimed Lithuania a Soviet Socialist Republic (July 21) and asked for incorporation into the U. S. S. R., which was granted by the Supreme Soviet (Aug. 3). The capital is Vilna. (For Lithuania as an independent Republic, see World Almanac, 1940, page 247). The Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic was established (1940), after the U. S. S. R. had occupied the chief cities, charging that Latvia had violated the spirit of a mutual assistance pact with the U. S. S. R. A new Parliament, dominated by the Communist party was chosen (July 14) at the elections. The vote showed 97.6 for the one-party Communist ticket. The new Parliament proclaimed Latvia a Soviet Republic (July 21) and asked for incorporation in the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, which the Supreme Soviet granted Aug. 5) The capital is Riga. (For Latvia as an independent Republic, see World Almanac, 1940, page 246.) The Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic was created (1940). The U. S. 8. R. charged that Estonia had violated a mutual assistance pact by making a military alliance with Lithuania and Latvia and demanded the establishment of a new government in conformance with the ideas of Moscow after the army had marched into the country (June 16). A new Parliament with a Communist majority was elected (July 14), the Communist ticket-the only in the field-receiving 92.9 per cent of the vote. The new Parliament proclaimed Latvia a Soviet Republic (July 21) and asked for incorporation into the U. S. S. R., which was granted (Aug. 6) by vote of the Supreme Soviet. The capital is Tallinn. (For Estonia as an independent Republic, see World Almanac, 1940, pages 226, 227.) Under the constitution (1936), the supreme organ of state power is the Supreme Soviet of the U. S. S. R. (replacing the All-Union Congress of Soviets), meeting regularly twice a year and elected for a period of four years. The Supreme Soviet consists of two legislative chambers with equal rights, viz: the Soviet of the Union, elected on the basis of one deputy per 300,000 population (647 deputies, an increase from 569 caused by the addition of the Latvian, Lithuanian, Estonian, Karelo-Finnish and Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republics and additions to the Ukrainian and Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republics); the Council of Nationalities, consisting of 25 delegates selected by the Supreme Soviet of each Union Republic, 11 from each of the 22 autonomous republics, and five from each autonomous province 713, an increase from 574 caused by the addition of the new Republics). In case of disagreement between the two Chambers, a conciliation commission is provided, and if its decision fails to bring agreement the Soviet is dissolved and new elections fixed. The two Chambers in joint session elect a Presidium consisting of a president, sixteen vice-presidents and 24 members, which have wide administrative powers between sessions of the Supreme Soviet, including ratification of treaties and declaration of a state of war. The Presidium supervises the work of the Council of People's Commissars, selected by the Supreme Soviet, which acts as the executive and administrative organ of the State. In addition to a president and vice-president, the Soviet has commissar members, heads of the federal commissariats of defense, foreign affairs, foreign trade, railways, water transport, communications, sea transport, ferrous metallurgy, non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry, aviation, shipbuilding, armaments, munitions, heavy machine-building, medium machinebuilding, and general machine-building, navy, procurement, construction, electric industry, and electric power stations, coal industry, fuel industry. Commissariats common to both federal government and the Union Republics are: food industry, fish industry, meat and dairy, light industry, textile industry, timber, state grain and livestock farms, finance, home trade, home affairs, justice, health, building materials industry, agriculture. The remaining seven members of the Council are the chairman of: The State Planning Commission, the Committees on Art, Higher Education, Geology, Radio Broadcasting and Radiofication, Cinema Industry. The highest judicial organ is the Supreme Court, which, with the Special Courts, are elected by the Supreme Council for five-year terms. Land and natural resources are held in trust by the Government for the general population. though collective farms may hold their land under a system of perpetual leasehold. Natural resources are exploited by state trusts. The transport system. as well as posts. telephones and telegraphs, are operated as Government departments. Industry is conducted almost wholly by state enterprises, the output of private industries having declined to a fraction of one per cent of the industrial production. Some industrial enterprises are conducted by the cooperatives. The Communist Party is the only legalized political organization in the Soviet Union, though non-party candidates are freely elected to public office. The party's directive body is the Central Committee. elected by the membership at the party congresses. The Committee selects a small executive body, the Political Bureau, which by virtue of its position of party leadership, makes decisions on policy which are followed by the Government. A list of People's Commissariats (All-Union) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics follows: Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars -Joseph V. Stalin, who is also chairman of the State Committee for Defense. Foreign Affairs and Vice Premier-Viacheslav M. Molotov. Foreign Trade-Anastase L. Mikoyan. Chemical Industry-Mikhail F. Denisov. Heavy Machine Building-Kazakov. Medium Machine Building-V. A. Malyshev. Coal Industry-Vasily V. Vakhrushev. A list of the People's Commissariats (All-Union and Union Republic) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics follows: Food Industry-Vasili P. Zotov. Fish Industry-A. Ishkov. Meat and Dairy Industry-Pavel V. Smirnov. State Grain and Livestock Farms-Pavel P. Lobanov. Finance-Arseni G. Zverev. Trade-Alexander B. Lubimov. United N. K. V. D. (political police)-Lavrenti P. Beria. Justice-Nikolai M. Richkov. Public Health-Georgi A. Miterev. Building Materials Industry-Leonid A. Sosnin. Chairman of the State Planning Commission of the U. S. S. R.-Maxim Z. Saburov Chairman of the Administration of the State Bank of the U. S. S. R.-N. K. Sokolov. Chairman of the Commission of Soviet ControlLev Mekhlis. Chairman of the Supreme Court of the U. S. S. R.-Ivan T. Golyakov. Procurer of the U. S. S. R.-V. M. Bochkoff. Chairman of the Committee on High Education-Sergie V. Kaftanov. Officers of the Supreme Soviet: Chairman of the Presidium-Mikhail I. Kalinin. President of the Soviet of the Union-A. A. Andreyev. President of the Soviet of Nationalities-J. M. Shvernik. Joseph Stalin is a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the U. S. S. R., a member of the Military Council of the Supreme Soviet, and General Secretary of the Communist Party of the U. S. S. R., in addition to being Premier and Defense Commissar. Stalin also is Commander-in-Chief of the Army. A Committee for State Defense was formed (July 1, 1941) with Stalin as Chairman. The other members are Marshal Klementi E. Voroshilov, Lavrenti P. Beria and Georgi M. Malenkov. Members of the Political Bureau (March, 1939) as elected at the eighteenth congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union are-Andreyev, Khruschev, Stalin, Kaganovich, Mikoyan, Voroshilov, Kalinin, Molotov, Zhdanov, and five candidates: L. Beria, N. Shvernik, N. Voznesensky, G. Malenkov and A. Shcherbakov. There were organized (April 17, 1940) six new economic councils attached to the Council of People's Commissars, to coordinate the activities of the corresponding commissariats. These councils, with chairmen, are: Metallurgy and Chemistry-N. I. Bulganin. charge Agriculture and Procurement-M. Benediktov. Education in the Soviet Union is a against the various Union Republics and the local budgets, with the exception that higher education is conducted on a federal basis. Universal compulsory education for children, introduced for a four-year period (1930), has since been extended to seven years. In the course of the first and second Five-Year Plans new alphabets were adopted for 50 of the minor nationalites that had never before possessed a written language. In most cases the Latin alphabet was adapted, The Appropriations for the cultural needs of the population (1941) were 47,800.000.000 rubles. number of pupils in elementary and secondary schools (1941-1942) was 36,200,000 and 13,500 secondary and elementary schools were opened (1940). Thirty more colleges and universities also were opened in that year, bringing the total to 781 with a registration of approximately 600,000. A system of tuition was introduced (1940) in the secondary schools and higher educational institutions. Heretofore tuition had been free. There were (1939) 8.550 newspapers with an aggregate circulation of 37,520,000. The number of public libraries increased from 40,300 (1933-1934) to 245,000 (1941). The number of portable libraries, which serve the people in the remote districts, increased (1941) to 144,000. The portable libraries delivered 30,000,000 books and magazines to their readers in a single year. The number of volumes in the public libraries (1941) was estimated at 1,500,000,000. The Government announced (Aug. 13, 1941) that there were 8,338 churches, mosques and synagogues in the country, Military service is compulsory, beginning at the age of 18. The Red Army, according to Commissar Voroshilov, numbers (1939) 2,500,000, including territorial cadres and frontier guards. The army has a high degree of mechanization. The number of airplanes has not been officially divulged, but it is believed to be approximately 9,000, divided into 160 squadrons of 12 machines. Of these 40 are bombing squadrons, 35 fighting squadrons and the rest reconnaissance squadrons. Compulsory military training for a period of 110 days for all males between 16 and 50 began in September, 1941. The Soviet Navy is in the process of reconstruction and consists (1940) of three battleships, all launched in 1911 and since refitted; seven cruisers, one launched in 1905, three in 1915, one in 1916, one in 1936 and one in 1937. There were under construction (1938) 23 destroyers, 134 submarines, 18 torpedo boats, 130 motor torpedo boats, several mine layers, mine sweeping trawlers and miscellaneous craft. Admiral Nikolai G. Kuznetsov, Commissar of the Navy, announced (July 27, 1940) that Russia would add 168 warships to her fleet (1940-1941). He said the fleet was increased (1939) by 112 ships, large and small torpedo cutters included. "In 1940," he added, "we will get 168-that is a 50 per cent increase. If you consider the tonnage of 1939 as 100 per cent, in 1940 the tonnage will be 200 per cent." Jane's Fighting Ships, an authoritative naval work, says that very little reliable information is obtainable" about the Russian navy, "but everything goes to suggest that shipbuilding still proceeds at a slow rate." According to a decree of the Council of People's Commissars (Sept. 29, 1935) consumers' cooperative organizations in the cities were discontinued and their property and trade transferred to the People's Commissariat of Trade of the U. S. S. R. A system of planned development, embracing not only the entire economic field, but all cultural. scientific and public health activity as well, is in operation in the U. S. S. R. This has taken the form of a series of Five-Year Plans, with intermediate annual schedules. The Soviet Union completed (Dec. 31, 1937) its second Five-Year Plan and embarked on a third. Under the first Plan (completed at the end of 1932) broad bases for heavy industry were established and mass-production was organized in many lines. Many large-scale regional power plants were constructed. Agriculture was completely reorganized on a collectivist basis. Under the second Plan these gains were extended and an improved economic coordination was attained. An important factor on the credit side was the rehabilitation and improvement of rail transport along with wide extension of the waterways system. The opening to navigation of the Northeast Passage and the development of the Soviet Arctic were also notable accomplishments. During the first Plan, 51,000,000,000 rubles was expended on new capital construction; during the second Plan two and a half times that amount. The industrial output was increased 119% during the first Plan; during the second Plan an additional increase of 121% (April 1, 1937-four years and three months of the second Five-Year Plan) was registered. Grain production increased 40 per cent under the second Plan. Industrial output in 1928 was 232.7% that of 1913; and in 1932 was 358.9% that of 1913. The first year of each Five-Year Plan is usually taken as a test year. The schedule (1938) called for an increase in the output of industry of 15.5% and commensurate gains in other lines. The annual output of Soviet industry has shown a six-fold increase during the past decade, the period of the first two Five-Year Plans. The increase (1937) was 13%. This was considerably below the schedule of increase for the year, owing to a decided lag in output during the summer and fall. The program (1938) called for an increase in output of 15.5% and the construction of 147 new large enterprises in heavy industry. The U. S. S. R. during the second Five-Year Plan took first place among the European countries in industrial production. Nikolai Voznesensky, at the time Vice Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars and chairman of the State Planning Commission, told the 18th conference of the Communist party in Moscow (Feb. 19, 1941) that, taking the 1929 level of production as 100, he rated Russia's 1940 production at 534. He also reported that in three years of the Third Five-Year Plan, Russia's national income increased by 29,500,000,000 rubles for a total income of 125,500,000,000 in 1940. The State Planning Commission was directed to draw up a 15-year plan "to surpass capitalistic countries" in industrial production. The plan is to be designed to speed up production in pig iron, steel, fuel, electricity, machinery and consumer goods industries. All large-scale industry in the U.S.S.R. is stateowned or operated by cooperative organizations. The state industries, which include all of the more important enterprises, account for more than 99.97% of the total industrial output of the country. They are operated under the supervision of the industrial commissariats. There are only a few scattered private industrial enterprises. The Government ordered (June 26, 1940) new working hours throughout the country. Workers who had a five-day, 35-hour week had to sacrifice it for a six-day week of 48 hours. The six-day week was suspended and the seven-day week restored. Workers in branches working a six-hour day are required to work seven; those who worked seven are required to work eight hours. The work period of those on an eight-hour day is not changed. Industry, was put on an overtime basis during the war with Germany. The five-day working week was a feature of the changes wrought by the Revolution. Soviet trade unions urged the change to a longer work day and work weeks and the Government adopted the suggestion. The Government drafts annually from 800,000 to 1,000,000 youths between 14 and 17 years for industrial training after which they work for the State for four consecutive years. Before the revolution agricultural methods were extremely primitive. More than 60 per cent of the arable land was held by the imperial family, churches, large estates and "kulaks," the remainder being parcelled out among some 16,000,000 peasant households whose average holding-divided into three strips-was less than 14 acres. Grain area of collective farms increased from 187,500,000 acres (1933) to 230,000,000 acres (1938). Grain area of individual peasant farmers dropped in this period from 38,794,000 acres to 1,482,600 acres, or 0.6 per cent of the total grain area. The revolution released much new land for the peasants, but over a decade passed before the Soviet Government was able to effect a general change in the set-up. The drive for collectivization began (1928-29) and today the bulk of the agricultural output as represented by large-scale, mechanized collective farms in which the peasant holdings are pooled. There were 243,000 collective farms (1941), operated by 18,800,000 households. Individual holdings were still worked by 1,400,000 peasant families. A number of large farms, most of which serve as agricultural laboratories and experiment stations. are operated directly by the State. Cash incomes in collective farms of rubles (1933), 5,662,000,000; (1937), 14,180,000,000; (1939). 18,300,000,000. The backbone of mechanization in Soviet agriculture is furnished by the machine and tractor stations, each of which serves collective farms within its area. These stations operated (1940) 523,000 tractors and 182,000 combines. The length of airlines in the U. S. S. R. (1940) was approximately 100,000 miles. Transport aviation carried (1939) 307,000 passengers, 11,500 tons of mail and 39,654 tons of cargo. By the end of the Third Five-Year Plan it is expected 450,000 persons will be carried annually. Electric power development and operation in the Soviet Union is conducted under a unified system on a single technical and organizational foundation. Under this system a series of large regional power plants serves the principal industrial and mining sections of the country. High voltage grid networks covering wide areas link the regional plants. There are some 75 regional plants in operation, furnishing three-fourths of the country's power supply. The budget reflects the economic progress of the Soviet Union because of the high degree of socialization of the nation. The first firm" budget (1923-1924) balanced at 2,317,600,000 rubles. Budgets (in thousands of rubles) for the last four years follow: Receipts Expenditures 1938 1939 1940 1941 127,571,000 124,000,000 156,097,000 156,097,000 The budget (1941) provides for the expenditure of 57,000,000,000 rubles for capital construction. The defense appropriation (1941) is 78,002,000,000 rubles, a four-fold increase in four years. The nominal value of the ruble is 19 cents, but accurate conversion into American money figures is impossible because of the lack of an open market. The number of workers (1940) was 30,400,000 and the estimate (1941) was 31,600,000. The wage fund (1940) was 161,000,000,000 rubles and the estimate (1941) 175,000,000,000. State and Cooperative retail trade reached a value of 174,500,000,000 rubles (1940), with an estimate of 197,000,000,000 (1941). Here are the figures on daily output in tons: 1940 467,000 Coal Oll with gas. .97-98,000 46-47,000 1937 370,000 84-86,000 40,000 50-51,000 The State Bank is the center of the banking system. It has a monopoly of short term loan operations and it is the only bank of issue. It also finances the bulk of the foreign trade operations. Other banks are the Prombank (Industrial Bank), which finances capital construction in state industries; the Selkhozbank (Agricultural Bank), which finances capital investments in socialized agriculture; the Vsekobank (All-Union Cooperative Bank), which finances capital construction for cooperative organizations except housing cooperatives, and the Tsekombank (Central Bank for Public Utilities), which finances municipal public utilities, housing projects and the building of new cities. Soviet currency has circulation only within the Soviet Union, both exports and imports thereof being prohibited by law. All payments abroad are made in gold or foreign currency. Gold mining has increased rapidly of recent years and the Soviet Union is said to stand second among the nations in gold production. No official figures for output are given. The Soviet Government exercises a monopoly of foreign trade, under the Commissariat for Foreign Trade, and both exports and imports are regulated in accordance with the country's system of planned economy. The Commissariat maintains trading bureaus in foreign countries. In addition some of the large industrial syndicates buy equipment abroad under the supervision of the Commissariat. Uruguay (REPUBLICA ORIENTAL DEL URUGUAY), Capital, Montevideo-Area, 72,153 square miles-Population (Jan. 1, 1938), 2,146,545 Uruguay, the smallest republic in South America, is bounded on the north and east by Brazil, on the south by the South Atlantic Ocean and the River Plata, and on the west by Argentina, the boundary line being the River Uruguay, which is navigable from the Plata to Salto, 200 miles north. In area it is slightly larger than the States of New York, New Jersey, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. Lying between latitudes 30° and 35 south and consisting of rolling grassy plains, it enjoys an extraordinarily healthy climate with a uniform temperature. More than 2,150,000 acres are under cultivation. The chief products are wheat, corn, oats, linseed, tobacco and olives. Wine making is a large industry. The new constitution presented by the Constituent Assembly of 284 members who were elected (June 25, 1933) was adopted by a plebiscite (April 19, 1934). It provides for a Chamber of Deputies of 99 members elected by the Provinces according to population, and a Senate of 30 members elected by the nation as a whole, 15 being from the party polling the largest vote and 15 from the party with the next largest vote. Suffrage is universal and compulsory, failure to vote being punishable by fine. Foreigners may become naturalized without losing their former citizenship. The President, Senators and Deputies have four year terms. The President appoints a Cabinet of Church and state are separate and there is complete religious tolerance. The preponderant religion is Roman Catholic. Primary education is compulsory and free. There is a university in Montevideo. The language is Spanish. The monetary unit is the peso. Government receipts (1940) are estimated at 91,220,000 pesos with expenditures of 91,143,000. The gold peso has a nominal value of $.44. Service in the standing army is voluntary, but compulsory military services was adopted (1940) for men reaching the age of 21 who are called for a short, intensive military training to pass them into the reserves. Vatican City (CITTA DEL VATICANO) Area, 1.6 square miles-Population (Dec. 1932), 1,025 The Popes for many centuries, with some slight interruptions, held temporal sovereignty over midItaly (the so-called Papal States), extending from sea to sea, comprising an area of some 16,000 square miles, with a population in the nineteenth century of more than 3,000.000. This territory in the reign of Pius IX. was incorporated in the Kingdom of Italy, the sovereignty of the Pope being confined to the palaces of the Vatican and the Lateran in Rome and the villa of Castel Gandolfo, by the Italian law (May 13, 1871). This law also guaranteed to the Pope and his successors in the chair of St. Peter a yearly indemnity of 3,225,000 lire ($622,425 at par of exchange), which allowance, however, remained unclaimed and unpaid. Final settlement of the Roman question came after negotiations (begun Oct. 4, 1926), when the Treaty of Conciliation, the Concordat and the financial convention were signed in the Lateran Palace (Feb. 11, 1929) by Cardinal Gasparri and Premier Mussolini. The treaty was duly ratified by the Pope and by the Italian Parliament (May 14 and 25) and signed by the King (May 27) and became effective (June 7) by exchange of ratification at the Vatican. (For summary of the Lateran Treaty, see The World Almanac for 1930, pages 717, 718, and for 1931 pages 716-18). Vatican City includes St. Peter's, the Vatican Palace and Museum covering more than 13 acres, the Vatican gardens, and neighboring buildings The present Sovereign of the State of Vatican City is the Supreme Pontiff, Pius XII, Eugenio Pacelli (born March 2, 1876) in Rome and elected Pope, 262nd, in succession to Pius XI (March 2, 1939). The Secretary of State is Cardinal Luigi Maglione (appointed March 11, 1939). The late Pius XI, in 1933, began to go outside Vatican City, and summered, with more or less regularity, at Castel Gandolfo in the Alban Hills. He modernized life and habits in the State of Vatican City by full use of wireless, telegraph, telephones, radios, automobiles and other up-to-date conveniences. |