operate with the land forces in the reduction of Quebec. But owing to the delay of the fleet, and the want of boats and provisions among the land forces, the expedition was unsuccessful. The next expedition against Canada took place in 1709, in Queen Anne's reign. The Colonies of New England and New York, raised about 2,500 men, who were placed under the command of Gen. Nicholson, who proceeded to Wood Creek, south of Lake George. Here they waited to hear of the arrival of the fleet which was to co-operate with them. The fleet did not arrive, and the army at Wood Creek were attacked with a malignant disease, which occasioned a great mortality, which compelled them to withdraw, and the expedition was abandoned. In 1711, another attempt, under Gen. Nicholson with the land forces, and a fleet under Admiral Walker, was made for the conquest of Canada. But this failed by the loss of eight or nine transports, with about 1000 men, by shipwreck. The peace of Utrecht, signed March 3d, 1713, put an end to hostilities, and continued till 1739.

In 1744, Great Britain declared war against France, and the next year Louisburg, a strong fortress on Cape Breton, was taken from the French. The French government soon fitted out a large fleet, with a large body of land forces, for the purpose of recovering Louisburg, and attacking the English Colonies. But this expedition, by means of storms, sickness among the troops, &c. failed of accomplishing any thing, and the Colonies were relieved from consternation and dismay. This war closed by a treaty of peace, signed at Aix la Chapelle, in 1748.

In 1755, hostilities again commenced between Great Britain and France, and in 1756, four expeditions were undertaken against the French. One was conducted by Col. Monckton and Gen. Winslow, against Nova Scotia. This expedition was attended with success. The country was subdued, and the inhabitants, about 2,000 in number, were transported to New England, and dispersed and incorporated with their conquerors. Gen. Johnson was ordered, with a body of troops, to take possession of Crown Point, but he did not succeed. Gen. Shirley

commanded an expedition against the fort at Niagara, but lost the season by delay. Gen. Braddock was sent against Fort du Quesne, but in penetrating through the wilderness fell into an ambuscade of French and Indians, where he was killed, and his troops suffered ar entire defeat.

In 1758, great efforts were made to subdue the French in America. Three armies were employed-one commanded by Gen. Amherst, to take possession of Cape Breton-one under Gen. Abercrombie, destined against Crown Point-and a third under Gen. Forbes, to drive the French from the Ohio. Gen. Amherst was successful in taking Louisburg, after a warm siege. The inhabitants of Cape Breton were sent to France, and the fortifications of Louisburg reduced to a heap of ruins.

Gen. Abercrombie, who was sent against Crown Point and Ticonderoga, attacked the French at the latter place, and was defeated with a terrible slaughter of his troops. Gen. Forbes was successful in taking possession of Fort du Quesne, which the French thought proper to abandon. The next year the efforts of the British and Americans to reduce the French were more successful. Gen. Prideaux and Sir William Johnson began the operations of the campaign, by taking possession of the French fort near Niagara. Gen. Amherst took possession of the forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga, which the French had abandoned.

But the decisive blow which proved the destruction of the French power in America, was the taking of Quebec by Gen. Wolfe. The loss of Quebec was soor followed by the capture of Montreal by Gen. Amherst, and Canada became a province of the British Empire. "Thus, after a century of wars, massacres, and destruction, committed by the French and savages, the colonies were secured from ferocious invaders, and Canada, with a valuable trade in furs, came under the British dominion."

The conquest of Canada, and the expulsion of the French from the Ohio, put an end to all important military operations in the American Colonies. In Europe,

however, the war continued to rage; and in the West Indies, the British, aided by the Americans, took Havana from the Spaniards. But in 1762, "a definitive treaty of peace was signed at Paris, by which the French king ceded Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Canada, to the British king; and the middle of the Mississippi, from its source to the river Ibberville, and the middle of that river to the sea, was made the boundary between the British and French dominions in America. Spain ceded to Great Britain, Florida, and all her possessions to the east of the Mississippi. Such was the state of the European possessions in America, at the commencement of the Revolution."

Before the Revolution, there were three kinds of government established in the British American Colonies. "The first was a charter government, by which the powers of legislation were vested in a governor, council, and assembly, chosen by the people. Of this kind were the governments of Connecticut and Rhode Island. The second was a proprietary government, in which the proprietor of the province was governor; although he generally resided abroad, and administered the government by a deputy of his own appointment; the assembly only being chosen by the people. Such were the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland; and, originally, of New-Jersey and Carolina. The third kind was that of royal government, where the governor and council were appointed by the crown, and the assembly by the people. Of this kind were the governments of New-Hampshire, Massachusetts, New-York, New-Jersey, after the year 1702, Virginia, the Carolinas, after the resignation of the proprietors in 1728, and Georgia. This variety of governments created different degrees of dependence on the crown. To render laws valid, it was constitutionally required that they should be ratified by the king; but this formality was often dispensed with, especially in the charter governments.

"At the beginning of the last war with France, commissioners from many of the colonies had assembled at Albany, and proposed that a great council should be

formed by deputies from the several colonies, which, with a general governor, to be appointed by the crown, should be empowered to take measures for the common safety, and to raise money for the execution of their designs. This proposal was not relished by the British ministry; but in place of this plan it was proposed, that the governors of the colonies, with the assistance of one or two of their council, should assemble and concert measures for the general defence; erect forts, levy troops, and draw on the treasury of England for moneys that should be wanted; but the treasury to be reimbursed by a tax on the colonies, to be laid by the English parliament. To this plan, which would imply an avowal of the right of parliament to tax the colonies, the provincial assemblies objected with unshaken firmness. It seems, therefore, that the British parliament, before the war, had it in contemplation to exercise the right they claimed of taxing the colonies at pleasure, without permitting them to be represented. Indeed it is obvious that they laid hold of the alarming situation of the colonies, about 1754 and 1755, to force them into an acknowledgment of the right, or the adoption of measures that might afterwards be drawn into precedent. The colonies, however, with an uncommon foresight and firmness, defeated all their attempts. The war was carried on by requisitions on the colonies for supplies of men and money, or by voluntary contributions.

But no sooner was peace concluded, than the English parliament resumed the plan of taxing the colonies; and, to justify their attempts, said, that the money to be raised was to be appropriated to defray the expense of defending them in the late war."*

The first attempt of the British government to raise a revenue in America, appeared in the memorable Stamp Act; but such was the opposition of the colonies to this act, that it was shortly after repealed. The parliament, however, persisted in their right to raise a revenue from the colonies, and accordingly passed an act, laying a certain duty on glass, tea, paper, and painters' colours

* Dr. Morse.

articles which were much wanted, and not manufactured in America. This act was so obnoxious to the Americans, that the parliament thought proper, in 1770, to take off these duties, except three pence a pound on tea. But this duty, however trifling, kept alive the jealousies of the colonies, and their opposition continued and increased. It was not the inconvenience of paying the duty which raised their opposition, but it was the prin ciple, which, once admitted, would have subjected the colonies to unlimited parliamentary taxation, without the privilege of being represented.

After a series of oppressive acts on the part of the British government, and of opposition on the part of the colonies, General Gage was sent over with an armed force to Boston, in 1774, to overawe and reduce the rebellious colonies to submission. But these measures did not intimidate the Americans. The people generally concurred in a proposition for holding a Congress by deputation from the several colonies, in order to concert measures for the preservation of their rights. Deputies were accordingly appointed, and the first Congress met at Philadelphia, in October, 1774. The proceedings of the American Congress had a tendency to confirm the people in a spirited and unanimous determination to resist the oppressive acts of the mother country, and to defend their just and constitutional rights. On the other hand, the British Parliament declared that a rebellion actually existed, and besought his Britannic Majesty to take the most effectual measures to enforce due obedience to the laws and authority of his government; and assured him that they were determined to support him in maintaining the just rights of the crown. "From this moment an appeal to arms became unavoidable, and both parties prepared for the conflict."

The first scene of this sanguinary contest opened at Lexington, on the morning of the 19th of April, 1775. Here was spilt the first blood in a war of seven years duration, a war which severed these United States from the British Empire, and ended in the establishment of the independence of a nation of freemen.