1) At the beginning of a word it has the sound of z: Xan'-thus (Zan thus). 2) Between e or u and an accented vowel, it has the sound of gz: ea¬ i'-lis (egzi'lis, as in exile); ux-o'-ri-us (ugzo're-us, as in uxorious).

12. C, S, T, and X-Aspirated.-Before i preceded by an accented syllable and followed by a vowel, c, s, t, and x are aspirated-c, s, and t taking the sound of sh, x that of ksh: so'-ci-us (so'-she-us), Al'-si-um (Al'she-un), ar'-tium (ar'she-um); anx'-i-us (ank'-she-us). C has also the sound of sh before eu and yo preceded by an accented syllable: ca-du'-ce-us (ca-du'-she-us), Sic'-y-on (Sish'-e-on). But

1. S, immediately preceded by an accented vowel and followed by i with another vowel, has the sound of zh: Moe'-si-a (Me'-zhe-a). But some proper nouns retain the sound of sh: A'-si-a (A'-she-a), Lys'-i-as, So'-si-a, The'-o-do'-si-a, Tys'-i-as.

2. T loses the aspirate (1) after s, i, or x; Os'-ti-a, At'-ti-us, mix' ti-o-(2) in old infinitives in ier; flec'-ti-er :—(3) generally in proper names in tion (tyon): Phi-lis'-ti-on, Am-phic'-ty-on.

13. Silent Consonants-An initial consonant, with or without the aspirate h, is sometimes silent: Thus

1. C before n: Cne'-us (Ne'-us).

2. Ch or ph before a mute: Chtho'-ni-a (Thonia), Phthi'-a (Thia). 3. Gorm before n: gna'-rus; Mne'-mon.

4. P before s or t: Psy-che, Ptol'-e-mae'-us.

5. T before m: Tmo'-lus.

II. CONTINENTAL METHOD.

1. Sounds of Vowels.

14. Each vowel has in the main one uniform sound,' but the length or duration of the sound depends upon the quantity of the vowel. Sec 20.

The vowel sounds are as follows:

a like ä in father: e. g. a'-ra.

1 These sounds sometimes undergo slight modifications in uniting with the various consonants.

2. Sounds of Diphthongs.

15. Ae and oe like a in made, e. g. ae'-tas, coe'-lum.

16. The pronunciation of the consonants is similar to that of the English method, but it varies somewhat in different countries.

SYLLABLES.

17. In the pronunciation of Latin, every word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs; thus the Latin words, more, vice, acute, and persuade are pronounced, not as the same words are in English, but with their vowel sounds all heard in separate syllables; thus, mo'-re, vi'-ce, a-cu'-te, per-sua'-de.

18. Simple words are divided into syllables as follows:

1. After a vowel (or diphthong), with the Long Sound (7), consonants must be joined to the following vowel: pa'-ter, pa'-tres, a-gro'-rum, sa-cro'rum, au-di'-vi.

2. After a vowel with the Short Sound (8),

1) A single or double consonant is joined to such vowel, except after i unaccented: gen'-e-ri, rex'-i, dom'-i-nus.

2) Two consonants are separated: bel'-lum, men'-sa, pat'-ri-bus. But x following a consonant must be joined to the preceding syllable: Xerx'es, anx'-i-us.

3) of three or more consonants, the last, or, if a mute with 7 or r, the last two must be joined to the following vowel: emp'-tus, tem'-plum, claus'tra, trans'-tra.

19. Compounds are divided into syllables,

1. Generally like simple words: ed'-o-mo (e, domo), an-tef'-e-ro (ante, fero), be-nev'-o-lens (bene, volens), mag-nan'-i-mus (magnus, animus).

2. But if the first part is entire and ends in a consonant, the compound

is resolved into its component parts: ab'-es, ab-i'-re.

1 In other combinations, the two vowels are generally pronounced separately, but ei and eu occur as diphthongs with nearly the same sound as in English.

QUANTITY.

20. Syllables are in quantity or length either long, short, or common.1

21. Long.-A syllable is long in quantity,

1. If it contains a diphthong: haec.

2. If its vowel is followed by j, x, z, or any two consonants, except a mute with 7 or r: rex, mons.

22. Short.-A syllable is short, if its vowel is followed by another vowel or a diphthong: di'-es, vi'-ae, ni'-hil.' 23. Common.-A syllable is common, if its vowel, naturally short, is followed by a mute with l or r: a'-gri.

24. The signs

x

denote respectively that the syllables over which they are placed are long, short, or common: ǎ-grō-răm.

ACCENTUATION.

I. PRIMARY ACCENT.

25. Monosyllables are treated as accented syllables: mons, nos.

26. Other words are accented as follows: 3

4

1. Words of two syllables-always on the first: men'-sa. 2. Words of more than two syllables—on the penult * if that is long in quantity, otherwise on the antepenult:* hono'-ris, con'-su-lis. But

1) Genitives in i for ii and vocatives in i for ie retain the accent of the full form: in-ge'-ni for in-ge'-ni-i; Mer-cu-ri for Mer-cu'-ri-e.

2) Penults common in quantity take the accent when used as long.

3) Compounds are accented like simple words; but

(a) The enclitics, que, ve, ne, appended to words accented on the ante. penult, throw back their accent upon the last syllable of that word: hom'i-ne'-que, hom'-i-nes'-que.

(b) Facio compounded with other words than prepositions, retains its own accent: cal-e-fa'-cit.

1 Common, i. e. sometimes long and sometimes short. For rules of quantity see Prosody. Two or three leading facts are here given for the convenience of the learner.

2 No account is taken of the breathing h (2. 2).

3 In the subsequent pages the pupil will be expected to accent words in pronunciation according to these rules. The quantity of the penult in words of more than two syllables will therefore be marked (unless determined by 21 and 22), to enable him to ascertain the place of the accent.

4 Penult, last syllable but one; antepenult, the last but two.

II. SECONDARY ACCENTS.

27. A second accent is placed on the second or third syllable before the primary accent,-on the second, if that is the first syllable of the word, or is long in quantity, otherwise on the third: mon'-u-e'-runt; mon'-u-e-ra'mus; in-stau'-ra-ve'-runt.

28. In the same way, a third accent is placed on the second or third syllable before the second accent: hon'-o-rif'-i-cen-tis'-si-mus.

PART SECOND.

ETYMOLOGY.

29. ETYMOLOGY treats of the classification, inflection, and derivation of words.

30. The Parts of Speech are-Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.

CHAPTER I.
NOUNS.

31. A Noun or Substantive is a name, as of a person, place, or thing: Cicero, Cicero; Roma, Rome; puer, boy; domus, house.

1. A Proper Noun is a proper name, as of a person or place: Cicero, Róma.

2. A Common Noun is a name common to all the members of a class of objects: vir, a man; equus, horse. Common nouns include

1) Collective Nouns-designating a collection of objects: populus, people; exercitus, army.

2) Abstract Nouns-designating properties or qualities: virtus, virtue; justitia, justice.

3) Material Nouns-designating materials as such: aurum, gold; lignum, wood; aqua, water.

32. Nouns have Gender, Number, Person, and Case.

GENDER.

33. There are three genders-Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.

34. In some nouns, gender is determined by significa. tion; in others, by endings.

35. GENERAL RULES FOR GENDER.

I. MASCULINES.

1. Names of Males: Cicero; vir, man; rex, king. 2. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months: Rhēnus, lthine; Notus, south wind; Aprilis, April.

1. Names of Females: mulier, woman; leaena, lioness. 2. Names of Countries, Towns, Islands, and Trees: Aegyptus, Egypt; Róma, Rome; Delos, Delos; pirus, pear tree.

III. NEUTERS.

1. Indeclinable Nouns: fas, right; nihil, nothing.

2. Words and Clauses used as indeclinable nouns: triste vale, a sad farewell; difficile est amicitiam manere, it is difficult for friendship to continue."

36. REMARKS ON GENDER.

2

1. Exceptions. The endings of nouns sometimes give them a gender at variance with these rules. Thus,

1) The names of rivers-Albula, Allia, Lethe, Styx, and sometimes others, are feminine by ending.

2) Some names of countries, towns, islands, trees, and animals take the gender of their endings. See 47. 1.

2. Masculine or Feminine.-A few personal appellatives applicable to both sexes and a few names of animals are sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine, but when used without distinct reference to sex they are generally masculine: civis, citizen (man or woman); comes, companion; bos, ox, cow.

3. Mobile Nouns have different forms for different genders: filius, filia, son, daughter; rex, regina, king, queen; leo, leaena, lion, lioness.

4. Epicene Nouns have but one gender, but are used for both sexes. They apply only to the inferior animals, and usually take the gender of their endings: anser, goose (male or female), masculine; aquila, eagle, feminine.

PERSON AND NUMBER.

37. The Latin, like the English, has three persons and two numbers. The first person denotes the speaker; the second, the person spoken to; the third, the person spoken of. The singular number denotes one, the plural more than one.

1 Here vale and the clause amicitiam manère are both used as neuter nouns. 2 Gender as determined by the endings of nouns will be noticed in connection with the several declensions.