1. The genitive of the Gerund or Gerandive occurs most frequently— 1) With ars, scientia, consuétúdo,—cúpiditas, libido, stúdium, consilium, voluntas, spes,-pótestas, facultas, difficultas, occasio, tempus,—gēnus, mỡ dus, rátio,-causa, gratia, ete.

2) With adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, skill, recollection, and their opposites: ávidus, cúpidus, stúdiōsus conscius, gnārus, ignārus—pērītus, impéritus, insuētus, etc.

2. GERUND PREFERRED.-A gerund with a neuter pronoun or adjective as object should not be changed to the participial construction, because the latter could not distinguish the gender:

Artem vēra ac falsa dijudicandi, the art of distinguishing true things from the falee. Cic.

3. GERUND WITH GENITIVE.-The Gerund in the Genitive sometimes assumes so completely the force of a noun as to govern the Genitive instead of the Accusative:

Cic.

Rejiciendi jūdĭcum potestas, the power of challenging (of) the judges.

Here rejiciendi may be governed by potestas, and may itself by its substantive force govern júdicum, the challenging of the judges, etc. But these and similar forms in di are sometimes explained not as Gerunds but as Gerundives, like Gerundives with mei, nostri, etc. See 4 below.

4. PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION WITH MEI, NOSTRI, ETC.-With the Genitive of personal pronouns-mei, nostri, tui, vestri, sui-the participle ends in di without reference to Number or Gender:

Copia placandi tui (of a woman), an opportunity of appeasing you. Ov. Sui conservandi causa, for the purpose of preserving themselves. Cic. Vestri adhortandi causa, for the purpose of exhorting you. Liv.

This apparent irregularity may be accounted for by the fact that these genitives, though used as Personal Pronouns, are all strictly in form in the neuter singular of the Possessives meum, tuum, suum, etc., hence the participle in di agrees with them perfectly.

5. PURPOSE.-The Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is sometimes used to express Purpose or Tendency:

Haec tradendae Hannibali victoriae sunt, These things are for the purpose of giving victory to Hannibal. Liv. Lēges pellendi claros viros, laws for driving away illustrious men. Tac. Proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis, He sets out for the purpose of studying antiquity. Tac.

This genitive is sometimes best explained as Predicate Genitive (401), as in the first example; sometimes as dependent upon a noun, as pellendi dependent upon lèges in the second example; and sometimes simply as a Genitive of Cause (393, 409. 4), as in the third example; though in such cases, especially in the second and third, causa may be supplied.

6. INFINITIVE FOR GERUND.-The Infinitive for the Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is often used in the poets with nouns and adjectives, sometimes even in prose:

Cupido Stygios innare lacus, the desire to sail upon the Stygian lakes. Virg. Avidus committĕre pugnam, eager to engage battle. Ovid.

II. DATIVE OF GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES.

564. The Dative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used with a few verbs and adjectives which regularly govern the Dative:

GERUND.-Quum solvendo non essent, Since they were not able to pay. Cic. Aqua utilis est bibendo, Water is useful for drinking. Plin.

GERUNDIVE.-LŎcum oppido condendo ceperunt, They selected a place for founding a city. Liv. Tempora dēmětendis fructibus accommodata, seasons suitable for gathering fruits. Cic.

1. GERUND.-The Dative of the Gerund is rare and confined mostly to late writers; with an object it is almost without example.

2. GERUNDIVE OF PURPOSE.-In Livy, Tacitus, and late writers, the Dative of the Gerundive often denotes purpose:

Firmandae vǎlētūdini in Campaniam concessit, He withdrew into Campania to confirm his health. Tac.

3. GERUNDIVE WITH OFFICIAL NAMES.-The Dative of the Gerundive also stands after certain official names, as decemviri, triumviri, comitia :

Děcemviros legibus scribendis creavimus, We have appointed a committee of ten to prepare laws. Liv. But the Dative is perhaps best explained as dependent upon the verb.

III. ACCUSATive of GeruNDS AND GERUNDIVES.

565. The Accusative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used after a few prepositions:

GERUND.-Ad discendum propensi sumus, We are inclined to learn (to learning). Cic. Inter ludendum, in or during play. Quint.

GERUNDIVE.-Ad colendos agros, for cultivating the fields. Cic. Ante condendam urbem, before the founding of the city. Liv.

1. PREPOSITIONS.-The Accusative of the gerund or gerundive is used most frequently after ad; sometimes after inter and ob; very rarely after ante, circa, and in.

2. WITH OBJECT.-The accusative of a gerund with a direct object sometimes occurs, but is rare :

Ad placandum deos pertinet, It tends to appease the gods. Cic.

3. PURPOSE.-With verbs of giving, permitting, leaving, taking, etc., the purpose of the action is sometimes denoted by the Gerund with ad, or by the Gerundive in agreement with a noun:

Ad ĭmĭtandum mihi prōpõsĭtum exemplar illud, That model has been set before me for imitation. Cic. Attribuit Ităliam vastandam (for ad vastandum) Cătilinae, He assigned Italy to Catiline to ravage (to be ravaged). Cic.

IV. ABLATIVE OF GERUNDS OR GERUNDIVES.

566. The Ablative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used,

I. As Ablative of Means or Instrument:

GERUND. Mens discendo ǎlitur, The mind is nourished by learning. Cic. Sălutem hominibus dando, by giving safety to men. Cic.

GERUNDIVE.-Legendis ōrātōrĭbus, by reading the orators. Cic.

II. With Prepositions :

GERUND.-Virtutes cernuntur in ǎgendo, Virtues are seen in action. Cic. Deterrere a scribendo, to deter from writing. Cic.

GERUNDIVE.-Brūtus in libĕranda patria est interfectus, Brutus was slain in liberating his country. Cic.

1. PREPOSITIONS.-The ablative of the gerund or gerundive is used most frequently after in; sometimes after a (ab), de, ex (e); very rarely after cum and pro.

2. WITH OBJECT.-After prepositions, the ablative of the gerund with a direct object is exceedingly rare :

In tribuendo suum cuique, in giving every one his own. Cic.

3. WITHOUT A PREPOSITION, the ablative of the gerund or gerundive denotes in a few instances some other relation than that of means, as time, separation, etc.:

Incipiendo refugi, I drew back in the very beginning. Cic.

SECTION XI.

SUPINE

567. The Supine, like the Gerund, is a verb in force, but a noun in form and inflection. As a verb it governs oblique cases, as a noun it is itself governed.

568. The Supine has but two cases: the Accusative in um and the Ablative in u.

RULE L.-Supine in Um.

569. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion to express PURPOSE:

Lēgāti vēnērunt res repetitum, Deputies came to demand restitution. Liv. Ad Caesarem congratŭlātum convēnērunt, They came to Caesar to congratulate him. Caes.

1. The Supine in um occurs in a few instances after verbs which do not directly express motion:

Filiam Agrippae nuptum dedit, He gave his daughter in marriage to Agrippa. Suet.

2. The Supine in um with the verb eo is equivalent to the forms of the first Periphrastic Conjugation, and may often be rendered literally:

Bonos omnes perditum eunt, They are going to destroy all the good. Sall. But in subordinate clauses the Supine in um with the verb eo is often used for the simple verb:

Ultum īre, (= ulcisci) injurias festīnat, He hastens to avenge the injuries. Sall. 3. The Supine in um with iri, the infinitive passive of eo, forms, it will be remembered (241. III. 1), the Future Passive Infinitive:

Brutum visum iri a me puto, I think Brutus will be seen by me. Cic.

4. The Supine in um as an expression of purpose is not very common, its place is often supplied even after verbs of motion by other constructions:

1) By ut or qui with the Subjunctive. See 489.

2) By Gerunds or Gerundives. See 563. 5; 564. 2; 565. 3.

3) By Participles. See 578. V.

570. The Supine in u is generally used as an Ablative of Specification (429):

Quid est tam jucundum audītu, What is so agreeable to hear (in hear. ing)? Cic. Difficile dictu est, It is difficult to tell. Cic.

1. The Supine in u is used chiefly with-jucundus, optimus-facilis, proclivis, difficilis-incredibilis, memorabilis-honestus, turpis, fas, nefas-dignus, indignusŎpus est.

2. The Supine in u is very rare, and does not occur with an object. The only examples in common use are: auditu, cognitu, dictu, and factu.

3. As the Supine in u is little used, its place is supplied by other constructions: 1) By ad with the Gerund: Verba ad audiendum jucunda, words agreeable to hear. Cic.

2) By the Infinitive: Făcile est vincère, It is easy to conquer. Cic.

3) By a Finite Mood with an adverb: Non făcile dijūdĭcātur ămor fictus, Pretended love is not easy to detect (is not easily detected). Cic.

SECTION XII.

PARTICIPLES.

I. TENSES OF PARTICIPLES.

571. Participles, like Infinitives, express only relative time, and represent the action as Present, Past, or Future, relatively to the principal verb.

PECULIARITIES.-Tenses in Participles present the leading peculiarities specified under the corresponding tenses in the Indicative. See 467. 2.

572. PRESENT PARTICIPLE.-The present participle represents the action as taking place at the time denoted by the principal verb:

Oculus se non videns ălia cernit, The eye, though it does not see itself (not

seeing itself), discerns other things. Cic. Plato scribens mortuus est, Plato died while writing. Cic.

573. Future PARTICIPLE.-The future active participle represents the action as about to take place, in time subsequent to that of the principal verb:

Săpiens bona semper plăcĭtūra laudat, The wise man praises blessings which will always please (being about to please). Sen.

But the Future Passive generally loses in a great degree its force as a tense, and is often best rendered by a verbal noun. See 562 and 580.

574. PERFECT PARTICIPLE.-The perfect participle represents the action as completed at the time of the principal verb.

Uva matūrāta dulcescit, The grape, when it has ripened (having ripened), becomes sweet. Cic.

1. The Perfect Participle, both in Deponent and in Passive verbs, is sometimes used of present time, and sometimes in Passive verbs it loses in a great degree its force as a tense, and is best rendered by a verbal noun. See 580.

2. For the Participle with habeo, see 388. 1. 2).

II. USE OF PARTICIPLES.

575. Participles are verbs in force, but Adjectives in form and inflection. As verbs they govern oblique cases, as adjectives they agree with nouns:

Anĭmus se non videns ǎlia cernit, The mind, though it does not see itself, discerns other things. Cic.

1. Participles in the Present or Perfect, rarely in the Future, may be used as adjectives or nouns: scripta epistola, a written letter; mortui, the dead. Participles with the force of adjectives may be used as predicate adjectives with sum: occupāti érant, they were occupied; as a verb, had been occupied.

576. Participles are used to abridge or shorten discourse by supplying the place of finite verbs with relatives or conjunctions. They are used with much greater freedom in Latin than in English.

577. PARTICIPLE FOR RELATIVE CLAUSE.—In abridged sentences, the Participle often supplies the place of a Relative Clause: