II. INFINITIVE CLAUSES.-These have simply the force of Nouns, merely supplying the place of the Nominative, or the Accusative:

Antĕcellĕre contigit, It was his good fortune to excel (to excel happened). Cic. Magna něgōtia võluit ăgĕre, He wished to achieve great undertakings. Cic. See 549, 550.

III. SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES.-These clauses introduced by ut, ne, etc., are only occasionally used as subject or object, and even then involve Purpose or Result:

Contigit ut patriam vindĭcāret, It was his good fortune to save his country. Nep. Volo ut mihi respondeas, I wish you would answer me. Cic. See 492, 495.

Here ut vindicăret is at once subject and result: it was his good fortune to save his country, or his good fortune was such that he saved his country. In the second example, ut-respondeas expresses not only the object desired, but also the purpose

of the desire.

IV. CLAUSES WITH QUOD.-These again are only occasionally used as subject or object, and even then either give prominence to the fact stated, or present it as a Ground or Reason:

Běněficium est quod necesse est mori, It is a blessing that it is necessary to die. Sen. Gaudeo quod te interpellāvi, I rejoice that (because) I have interrupted you. Cic. See 520.

Clauses with quod sometimes stand at the beginning of sentences to announce the subject of remark:

Quod me Agamemnonem aemŭlāri putas, fallĕris, As to the fact that you think I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken. Nep.

I. FORMS OF SUBJECT CLAUSES.

555. INTERROGATIVE.-Subject clauses which are interrogative in character, of course take the form of indirect questions. See 525. 2 and 554. I.

556. NOT INTERROGATIVE.-Subject clauses which are not interrogative, with some predicates take the form of Infinitive clauses, or clauses with quod; while with other predicates they take the form of Subjunctive clauses with ut, ne, etc. Thus,

I. With most impersonal verbs and with predicates consisting of est with a Noun or Adjective, the Subject may be supplied (1) by the Infinitive with or without a Subject Accusative, or, (2) if

the fact is to be made prominent or adduced as a reason, by a clause with quod :

Me poenitet vixisse, I regret that I have lived. Cic. Quod te offendi me poenitet, I regret that (or because) I have offended you. Cic.

1. SUBSTANTIVE PREDICATES WITH SUBJUNCTIVE.-Mos est, mōris est, consuētūdo est, consuetudinis est, It is a custom, etc., admit the Subjunctive for the Infinitive:

Cic.

Mos est hominum ut nōlint, It is a custom of men that they are not willing.

2. ADJECTIVE PREDICATES WITH SUBJUNCTIVE.-Reliquum est, proximum est, extremum est-vērum est, vērisimile est, falsum est-glōriōsum est, mirum est, optimum est, etc., admit the Subjunctive for the Infinitive:

Reliquum est ut certemus, it remains that we contend. Cic. Verum est ut bonos diligant, It is true that they love the good. Cic.

II. With Impersonal verbs signifying to happen—accidit, contingit, ěvěnit, fit—ut, ut non, with the Subjunctive, is generally used (495. 2):

Thrasybulo contigit, ut patriam vindĭcāret, It was the good fortune of Thrasybulus (happened to him) to deliver his country. Nep.

1. Here belong accedit ut, est ut, futurum esse ut, or fore ut. See 544. 2. Clauses with quod also occur with verbs of happening.

III. With Impersonal verbs signifying it follows, remains, is distant, and the like, the Subjunctive clause with ut is generally used:

Relinquitur, ut quiescāmus, It remains that we should submit. Cic. See 495. 2.

IV. Subjunctive clause standing alone. See 495. 2. 2).

II. FORMS OF OBJECT CLAUSES.

557. INTERROGATIVE.-Object clauses which are interrogative in character, of course, take the form of indirect questions. See 554. I.

558. NOT INTERROGATIVE.-Object clauses which are not interrogative in character, supplying the place of direct objects after transitive verbs, sometimes take the form of Infinitive clauses, sometimes of Subjunctive clauses, and sometimes of clauses with quod. Thus,

I. Verbs of DECLARING take,

1. Regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. 551. I.

2. But the Subjunctive with ut or ne, when they involve a command:

Dolabellae dixit, ut ad me scriberet ut in Ităliam venirem, He told Dola Bella to write to me to come into Italy. Cic. See 492. 2.

II. Verbs of DETERMINING, stătuo, constituo, decerno, and the like, take,

1. Generally the Infinitive, when the subject is the same as that of the principal verb, rarely the Subjunctive:

Mănĕre decrevit, He determined to remain. Nep. Stătuērunt, ut libertātem defendĕrent, They determined to defend liberty. Cic. See 551. II.

2. The Subjunctive with ut or ne (expressed or understood), when a new subject is introduced:

Constituerat, ut tribūnus quěrĕrētur, He had arranged that the tribune should enter the complaint. Sall. Senātus decrevit, dărent õpĕram consules, The senate decreed that the consuls should attend to it. Sall. See 492. 3.

Státuo, décerno, etc., when they mean to think, deem, suppose, etc., become verba sentiendi (551. I. 1), and of course take the infinitive:

Laudem săpientiae stătuo esse maximam, I deem it to be the highest praise of wisdom. Cic.

III. Verbs of STRIVING, ENDEAVORING, take the Subjunctive with ut or ne. See 492. 1. But contendo, nitor, studeo, and tento, generally take the Infinitive when the subject is the same:

Locum oppugnare contendit, He proceeds to storm the city. Caes. Tentabo de hoc dicère, I will attempt to speak of this. Quint. See 552.

IV. Verbs of CAUSING, MAKING, ACCOMPLISHING, take the Subjunctive with ut, ne, ut non. See 492, 495.

1. EXAMPLES.-Făcio, efficio, perficio-ădipiscor, impetro-assèquor, consequor, and sometimes fĕro, are examples of verbs of this class.

2. FACIO AND EFFICIO.-Făcio in the sense of assume, suppose, takes the Infinitive; efficio in the sense of prove, show, either the Infinitive or the Subjunctive with ut, etc.:

Fac ănimos non remănere post mortem, Assume that souls do not survive after death. Cic. Vult efficere animos esse mortales, He wishes to show that souls are mortal. Cic.

V. Verbs of EMOTION or FEELING, whether of joy or sorrow, take,

1. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative, to express the Object in view of which the feeling is exercised. See 551. III.

2. Clauses with quod, to make more prominent the Reason for the feeling:

Gaudeo quod te interpellavi, I rejoice that (or because) I have interrupt ed you. Cic. Dolebam quod socium amīsĕram, I was grieving because I had lost a companion. Cic. See 520. I.

For VERBS OF DESIRING, see 551. II. 2.

VI. Verbs of ASKING, DEMANDING, ADVISING, WARNING, COM

MANDING, and the like, take the Subjunctive, generally with ut

or ne:

Oro ut homines miseros conserves, I implore that you would preserve the unhappy men. Cic. Postulant ut signum detur, They demand that the signal be given. Liv. See 492. 2.

1. EXAMPLES.-Verbs of this class are numerous-the following are examples: ōro, rogo, pěto, prěcor, obsěcro-flagito, postulo, praecipio-hortor, moneo, suādeo, persuadeo-impello, incito, moveo, commoveo.

2. USED AS VERBA DECLARANDI.-Some of these verbs in particular significations become verba declārandi (551. 2), and accordingly take the Infinitive with Subject Accusative: thus mõneo, in the sense of remind and persuadeo in the sense of convince.

3. INFINITIVE.-Even in their ordinary significations some of these verbs, especially hortor, mõneo, and postulo, sometimes take the Infinitive with or without a Subject Accusative:

Postulat se absolvi, He demands that he should be acquitted. Cic. See 551. II. 1 and 2.

The Infinitive is much more common in poetry than in prose.

SECTION X.

GERUND.

559. The Gerund is a verb in force, but a noun in form and inflection. As a verb it governs oblique cases and takes adverbial modifiers, as a noun it is itself governed.

560. The Gerund has four cases: Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative, governed like nouns in the same situation :

Beāte vivendi cupiditate incensi sumus, We are animated with the desire of living happily. Cic. Charta inūtilis scribendo, paper unfit for writing. Plin. Ad ǎgendum nātus, born for action. Cic. In ǎgendo, in acting. Cic.

1. ACCUSATIVE.-The Accusative of the Gerund is used only after Prepo⚫ sitions.

2. GERUND AND INFINITIVE.-The gerund and the infinitive are kindred forms, expressing the meaning of the verb in the form of a noun (196. II.). They are also complements of each other, the one supplying the parts which are wanting in the other. Thus the infinitive supplies the nominative and the accusative after verbs (548); the gerund supplies the genitive, dative, and ablative, and the accusative after prepositions.

561. Gerunds with Direct Objects are regularly used only in the Genitive and in the Ablative without a preposition:

Jus vocandi sěnatum, the right of summoning the senate. Liv. Injurias férendo laudem měrēběris, You will merit praise by bearing wrongs. Cic.

562. GERUNDIVE.-The place of the Gerund with a Direct Object is supplied by putting that object in the case of the Gerund and changing the latter into the participle in -dus in agreement with it. The participle is then called a Gerundive:

Inita sunt consilia urbis dēlendae urbem dēlendi, Plans have been formed for destroying the city (of the city to be destroyed). Cic. Numa săcerdotibus creandis ănĭmum adjecit, Numa gave his attention to the appointment of priests. Liv.

1. EXPLANATION.-With the Gerund, the first example would be: Inita sunt consilia urbem delendi, in which delendi is governed by consilia, and urbem by delendi. In changing this to the Gerundive construction,

1) Urbem, the object, is changed into urbis, the case of the gerund, and is governed by consilia.

2) Delendi, the gerund, is changed into delendae, the gerundive, in agreement with urbis.

2. GERUNDIVE.-For the sake of brevity, the term Gerundive is used not only to designate the Participle, but also the Construction as a whole, including both the participle and the noun with which it agrees.

3. USE OF GERUNDIVE.-The Gerundive may be used for the Gerund with a Direct Object, and is almost invariably so used when the Gerund would be in the Dative or would depend upon a preposition. But see 563. 2.

But in a few instances the Gerund with a Direct Object occurs in the Dative or dependent upon a preposition. See 564. 1; 565. 2; and 566.2.

4. GERUNDIVES of utor, fruor, ETC.-In general only the gerundives of transitive verbs are used with their nouns as equivalents for Gerunds with Direct Objects; but the gerundives of ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, originally transitive verbs, admit this construction:

Ad munus fungendum, for discharging the duty. Cic. Spes potiundō

rum castrōrum, the hope of getting possession of the camp. Caes,

5. PASSIVE SENSE.-In a few instances, the Gerund has in appearance a passive sense:

Něque habent propriam percipiendi notam, Nor have they any proper mark of distinction, i. e., to distinguish them. Cic.

I. GENITIVE OF GERUNDS AND GERUNDIYES.

563. The Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is used with nouns and adjectives:

GERUND.—Ars vivendi, the art of living. Cic. Studiōsus erat audiendi, He was desirous of hearing. Nep. Jus vocandi sĕnātum, the right of sum moning the senate. Liv. Căpĭdus te audiendi, desirous of hearing you. Cie,

GERUNDIVE.-Libido ejus videndi, the desire of seeing him. Cic. Plātōnis studiosus audiendi fuit, He was fond of hearing Plato. Cic.