V. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

455. Aliquis, quis, qui, and quispiam, are all indefinite, some one, any one:

Est aliquis, there is some one. Liv. Dixit quis, some one said. Cic. Si quis rex, if any king. Cic. Alia res quaepiam, any other thing. Cic.

1. Aliquis is less indefinite than quis, qui, and quispiam.

2. Quis and qui are used chiefly after si, nisi, ne, and num. Quis is generally used substantively and qui adjectively. Aliquis after si, etc., is emphatic.

456. Quidam, a certain one, is less indefinite than aliquis:

Quidam rhetor antiquus, a certain ancient rhetorician. Cic. Accurrit quidam, A certain one runs up. Hor.

1. Quidam with an Adjective is sometimes used to qualify or soften the statement:

Justitia mirifica quaedam videtur, Justice seems somewhat wonderful. Cic. 2. Quidam with quasi and sometimes without it, has the force of a certain, a kind of, as it were:

Quasi ǎlumna quaedam, a certain foster child as it were. Cic.

457. Quisquam and ullus are used chiefly in negative and conditional sentences, and in interrogative sentences implying a negative:

Neque me quisquam agnovit, Nor did any one recognize me. Cic. Si quisquam, if any one. Cic. Num censes ullum ănimal esse, do you think there is any animal? Cic.

1. Němo is the negative of quisquam, and like quisquam is generally used substantively, rarely adjectively:

Neminem laesit, He harmed no one. Cic. Nemo poëta, no poet. Cic.

2. Nullus is the negative of ullus, and is generally used adjectively, but it sometimes supplies the Gen. and Abl. of němo, which generally wants those cases:

Nullum ănimal, no animal. Cic. Nullius aures, the ears of no one. Cic.

8. Nullus for non.-Nullus and nihil are sometimes used for an emphatic non: Nullus venit, He did not come. Cic. Mortui nulli sunt, The dead are not. Cic.

458. Quivis, Quilibet, any one whatever, and Quisque, every one, each one, are general indefinites (191):

Quaelibet res, any thing. Cic. Tuōrum quisque necessariōrum, each one of your friends. Cic.

1. Quisque with Superlatives and Ordinals is generally best rendered by all or by ever, always, with prīmus by very, possible :

Epicureos doctissimus quisque contemnit, All the most learned despise the Epicureans, or the most learned ever despise, etc. Cic. Primo quoque die, the earliest day possible, the very first. Cic.

2. Ut Quisque-ita with the superlative in both clauses is often best rendered, the more-the more:

Ut quisque sibi plūrimum confidit, ita maxime excellit, The more one confides in himself, the more he excels. Cic.

459. Alius and Alter are often repeated: alius-ălius, one-another; alii-alii, some-others; alter-alter, the one-the other; altěri—altěri, the one party—the other: Alii gloriae serviunt, ălii pecuniae, Some are slaves to glory, others to money. Cic. Alteri dimicant, alteri timent, One party contends, the other

fears. Cic.

1. Alius repeated in different cases often involves an ellipsis:

Alius alia via civitātem auxērunt, They advanced the state, one in one way, another in another. Liv. So also with alias or åliter: Aliter ălii vīvunt, Some live in one way, others in another. Cic.

2. After Alius, Aliter, and the like, atque, ac, and et often mean than:
Non alius essem atque sum, I would not be other than I am. Cic.

3. Alter means the one, the other (of two), the second; ǎlius, another, other. When alter-alter refers to objects previously mentioned, the first alter usually refers to the latter object, but may refer to either:

Inimicus, competitor, cum altero-cum altero, an enemy, a rival, with the latter-with the former. Cic.

4. Uterque means both, each of two, and in the Plu. both, cach of two parties.

CHAPTER V.

SYNTAX OF VERBS.

SECTION I.

AGREEMENT OF VERBS.

RULE XXXV.-Verb with Subject.

460. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in NUMBER and PERSON:

Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world. Cic. Ego rēges cjēci, vos tyrannos intrōdūcītis, I have banished kings, you introduce tyrants. Cic.

1. PARTICIPLES IN COMPOUND TENSES agree with the subject according to 438. See also 301. 2 and 3:

Thēbāni accūsāti sunt, The Thebans were accused. Cic.

1) In the Infinitive, the Participle in um sometimes occurs without any reference to the gender or number of the subject:

Diffidentia futūrum quae impěĕrāvisset, from doubt that those things which he had commanded would take place. Sall.

1) An Indefinite Subject is often denoted by the Second Pers. Sing., or by the First or Third Plur.: dicas, you (any one) may say; dicimus, we (people) say; dicunt, they say.

3. VERB OMITTED.-See 367. 3.

461. CONSTRUCTION ACCORDING TO SENSE.-Sometimes the Predicate is construed according to the real meaning of the subject without regard to grammatical gender or number. Thus

1. With Collective Nouns, pars, multitūdo, and the like:

Multitudo ǎbeunt, The multitude depart. Liv. Pars per agros dilapsi, a part (some) dispersed through the fields. Liv.

1) Here multitūdo and pars, though Sing. and Fem. in form, are Plur. and Masc. in sense. See also 438. 6.

2) Conversely the Imperative Singular may be used in addressing a multitude individually: Adde defectiōnem Siciliae, Add (to this, soldiers,) the revolt of Sicily.

Liv.

3) of two verbs with the same collective noun, the former is often Sing., and the latter Plur.: Juventus ruit certantque, The youth rush forth and contend. Virg. 2. With Millia, often masculine in sense:

Caesi sunt tria millia, Three thousand men were slain. Liv.

3. With Quisque, Uterque, Alius-Alium, Alter-Alterum, and the like. Uterque educunt, they each lead out. Caes. Alter alterum vĭdėmus, We see each other. Cic.

4. With Singular Subjects accompanied by an Ablative with cum: Dux cum principibus căpiuntur, The leader with his chiefs is taken. Liv. See 438. 6.

5. With Partim-Partim in the sense of pars—pars:

Bonōrum partim necessaria, partim non necessaria sunt, Of good things some are necessary, others are not necessary. Cic.

462. AGREEMENT WITH APPOSITIVE OR PREDICATE NOUN-Sometimes the verb agrees, not with its subject, but with an Appositive or Predicate Noun:

Volsinii, oppidum Tuscōrum, concrěmātum est, Volsinii, a town of the Tuscans, was burned. Plin. Non omnis error stultitia est dicenda, Not every error should be called folly. Cic.

1. The Verb regularly agrees with the appositive when that is urbs, oppidum, or civitas, in apposition with plural names of places, as in the first example.

1) The verb sometimes agrees with a noun in a subordinate clause after quam, nisi, etc.: Nihil ăliud nisi pax quaesita est (not quaesitum), Nothing but peace was sought. Cic.

2. The verb agrees with the predicate noun, when that is nearer or more emphatic than the subject, as in the second example.

463. AGREEMENT WITH COMPOUND SUBJECT.—With two or more subjects the verb agrees—

I. With one subject and is understood with the others:

Aut mōres spectări aut fortūna sŏlet, Either character or fortune is wont to be regarded. Cic. Homērus fuit et Hesiodus ante Rōmam conditam, Homer and Hesiod lived (were) before the founding of Rome. Cic.

II. With all the subjects conjointly, and is accordingly in the Plural Number:

Lentulus, Scipio pĕrierunt, Lentulus and Scipio perished. Cic. Ego et Cicero vǎlémus, Cicero and I are well. Cic. Tu et Tullia vălētis, You and Tullia are well. Cic.

1. PERSON. With subjects differing in Person, the verb takes the First Person rather than the Second, and the Second rather than the Third, as in the examples just given.

2. PARTICIPLES.-See 439.

3. TWO SUBJECTS AS A UNIT.-Two singular subjects forming in sense a unit or whole, admit a singular verb:

Senātus populusque intelligit, The senate and people (i. e., the state as a unit) understand. Cic. Tempus necessitasque postulat, Time and necessity (i. e., the crisis) demand. Cic.

4. SUBJECTS WITH AUT OR NEC.-With singular subjects connected by aut, vel, nec, neque or seu, the verb generally agrees with the nearest subject, but with subjects differing in person, it is generally Plur.:

Aut Brutus aut Cassius judicavit, Either Brutus or Cassius judged. Cic. Haec neque ego něque tu fēcimus, Neither you nor I have done these things. Ter.

SECTION II.

USE OF VOICES.

464. In a transitive verb, the Active voice represents the subject as acting upon some object, the Passive, as acted upon by some other person or thing:

Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world. Cic. A Deo omnia facta sunt, All things were made by God. Cic.

465. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION.—With transitive verbs, a thought may at the pleasure of the writer be expressed either actively or passively. But

I. That which in the active construction would be the object must be the subject in the passive; and

II. That which in the active would be the subject must be put in the ablative with a or ab, for persons, without it for things: (371.6):

Deus omnia constituit, God ordained all things, or: A Deo omnia constitūta sunt, All things were ordained by God. Cic. Dei providentia mundum administrat, The providence of God rules the world, or: Dei providentia mundus administratur, The world is ruled by the providence of God. Cic. 1. The PASSIVE VOICE is sometimes equivalent to the Act. with a reflexive pronoun, like the Greek Middle:

Lăvantur in fluminibus, They bathe (wash themselves) in the rivers. Caes. 2. INTRANSITIVE VERBS (193) have regularly only the active voice, but they are sometimes used impersonally in the passive:

Curritur ad praetōrium, They run to the praetorium (it is run to). Cic. 3 DEPONENT VERBS, though Passive in form, are in signification transitive or intransitive:

Illud mirabar, I admired that. Cic. Ab urbe proficisci, to set out from the city. Caes.

4. SEMI-DEPONENTS (272. 3) have some of the Active forms and some of the Passive, without change of meaning.

SECTION III.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

I. PRESENT INDICATIVE.

466. The Present Indicative represents the action of the verb as taking place at the present time:

Ego et Cicero vǎlēmus, Cicero and I are well. Cic. Hoc te rogo, I ask you for this. Cic.

467. Hence the Present Tense is used,

I. Of actions and events which are actually taking place at the present time, as in the above examples.

II. Of actions and events which, as belonging to all time, be long of course to the present, as general truths and customs:

Nihil est ǎmābilius_virtute, Nothing is more lovely than virtue. Cic. Fortes fortuna adjŭvat, Fortune helps the brave. Ter.

III. Of past actions and events which the writer wishes, for effect, to picture before the reader as present. The Present, when so used, is called the Historical Present:

Jugurtha vallo moenia circumdat, Jugurtha surrounds the city with a rampart. Sall.

1. HISTORICAL PRESENT.-The historical present may sometimes be best rendered by the English Imperfect, and sometimes by the English Present, as that has a similar historical use.