СНАРТER III.

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.

RULE XXXIII.-Agreement of Adjectives.

438. An Adjective agrees with its Noun in GENDER, NUMBER, and case:

Fortuna caeca est, Fortune is blind. Cic. Verae ămicitiae, true friendships. Cic. Măgister optimus, the best teacher. Cic.

1. This Rule includes Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles. 2. ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATE ADJECTIVES.-An adjective is called attributive, unless it unites with the verb (generally sum), to form the predicate; it is then called a predicate-adjective: as caeca est, above.

3. AGREEMENT WITH CLAUSE, ETC.-An adjective may agree with any word or words used substantively, as a pronoun, clause, infinitive, etc.:

Quis clarior, Who is more illustrious? Cic. Certum est libĕros ǎmāri, It is certain that children are loved. Quint. See 35. III.

An adjective agreeing with a clause is sometimes plural, as in Greek.

4. NEUTER WITH MASCULINE.-Sometimes the Predicate Adjective is neuter, when the subject is Masc. or Fem.:

Mors est extremum, Death is the last (thing). Cic.

5. NEUTER WITH GENITIVE.-A neuter adjective with a genitive is often used instead of an adjective with its noun:

Multum opěrae (for multa opěra), much service (much of service). Cic. Id temporis, that time. Cic. Vána rérum (for vānae res), vain things, Hor.

6. CONSTRUCTION ACCORDING TO SENSE.-Sometimes the adjective or participle conforms to the real meaning of its noun, without regard to grammatical gender or number:

Pars certare pārāti, a part (some), prepared to contend. Virg. Nobis (for me, 446, 2), praesente, we (1) being present. Plaut. Demosthenes cum cēteris ĕrant expulsi, Demosthenes with the others had been banished. Nep.

7. AGREEMENT WITH PREDICATE NOUN OR APPOSITIVE.-See 462.

8. AGREEMENT WITH ONE NOUN FOR ANOTHER.-When a noun governs another in the Genitive, an adjective belonging in sense to one of the two nouns, sometimes agrees with the other:

Majora (for majōrum) initia rerum, the beginnings of greater things. Liv. Cursus justi (justus) amnis, the regular course of the river. Liv.

439. WITH TWO OR MORE NOUNS.-An adjective or participle, belonging to two or more nouns, may agree with them all conjointly, or may agree with one and be understood with the others:

Castor et Pollux visi sunt, Castor and Pollux were seen. Cic. Těměritas ignoratioque vitiōsa est, Rashness and ignorance are bad. Cic.

1. The ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE generally agrees with the nearest noun: Agri omnes et măria, all lands and seas. Cic.

2. DIFFERENT GENDERS.-When the nouns are of different genders, they may denote

1) Persons: then the adjective or participle agreeing with them conjointly is masculine: Păter et māter mortui sunt, Father and mother are dead. Ter.

2) Persons and Things: then the adjective generally takes the gender of the person: Rex regiăque classis profecti sunt, The king and the royal fleet set out. Liv.

3) Things: then the adjective is generally neuter: Honōres, victoriae fortuita sunt, Honors and victories are accidental (things). Cic.

3. NEUTER WITH MASCULINE OR FEMININE.--With masculine or feminine nouns denoting inanimate objects, the adjective is often neuter:

Lăbor et dolor sunt finitima, Labor and pain are kindred (things). Cic. Nox atque praeda hostes remŏrāta sunt, Night and plunder detained the enemy. Sall.

4. TWO OR MORE ADJECTIVES.-Two or more adjectives in the singular may belong to a plural noun:

Prima et vicesima legiōnes, the first and the twentieth legions. Tac. So in proper names: Cnaeus et Publius Scipiōnes, Cnaeus and Publius Scipio. Cic.

440. USE OF ADJECTIVES.-The Adjective in Latin corresponds in its general use to the Adjective in English.

1. An adjective may qualify the complex idea formed by a noun and an adjective: aes alienum grande, a great debt. Here grande qualifies not aes alone, but aes alienum. In such cases no connective is used between the adjectives.

But the Latin uses the conjunction after multi even where the English omits it: multae et magnae tempestates, many great emergencies.

441. Adjectives are often used substantively: docti, the learned; multi, many persons; multa, many things.

1. In the Plural, Masculine Adjectives often designate persons, and Neuter Adjectives things: fortes, the brave; divites, the rich; pauperes, the poor; multi, many: pauci, few; omnes, all; mei, my friends; utilia, useful things; mea, nostra, my, our things; omnia, all things; haec, illa, these, those things.

2. In the Singular, Adjectives are occasionally used substantively, especially in the Neuter with an abstract sense: doctus, a learned man;

vērum, a true thing, the truth; nihil sinceri, nothing of sincerity, nothing sincere.

3. NOUN UNDERSTOOD.-Many adjectives become substantives, by the omission of their nouns: patria (terra), native country; dextra (manus), right hand; fera (bestia), wild beast; hiberna (castra), winter-quarters.

4. WITH RES.-Adjectives with res are used with great freedom: res adversae, adversity; res secundae, prosperity; res publica, republic.

5. FROM PROPER NAMES.-Adjectives from proper names are often equivalent to the English objective with of: pugna Mărăthōnia, the battle of Marathon; Diāna Ephèsia, Diana of Ephesus; Hercules Xenophontius, the Hercules of Xenophon.

6. DESIGNATING A PART.-A few adjectives sometimes designate a particular part of an object: prīmus, mědius, ultimus, extrēmus, postrēmus, intimus, summus, infimus, īmus, supremus, reliquus, cetera, etc.: prīma nox, the first part of the night; summus mons, the highest part of the mountain. In Livy and late writers, the neuter of these adjectives with a genitive sometimes occurs:

Ad ultimum inopiae, for ad ultimam inopiam, to extreme destitution. Liv.

442. EQUIVALENT TO A CLAUSE.-Adjectives, like nouns in apposition, are sometimes equivalent to clauses:

Nemo saltat sobrius, No one dances when he is sober, or when sober. Cic. Hortensium vivum ămāvi, I loved Hortensius, while he was alive. Cic. Homo nunquam sobrius, a man, who is never sober. Cic.

1. Prior, primus, ultimus, postremus, are often best rendered by a relative clause:

Primus mōrem solvit, He was the first who broke the custom. Liv.

With the adverb primum, the thought would be, he first broke the custom, and then did something else.

443. INSTEAD OF ADVERBS.-Adjectives are sometimes used where our idiom employs adverbs:

Socrates věnēnum laetus hausit, Socrates cheerfully drank the poison. Sen. Senatus frequens convenit, The senate assembled in great numbers. Cic. Roscius erat Romae frequens, Roscius was frequently at Rome. Cic.

Adjectives thus used are: (1) Those expressive of joy, knowledge, and their op posites: laetus, libens, invītus, tristis, sciens, insciens, prūdens, imprūdens, etc. (2) Nullus, sõlus, tõtus, ūnus; prior, primus, pròpior, proximus, etc. (3) In the Poets several adjectives of time and place:

Domesticus ōtior, I idle about home. Hor. Vespertinus pěte tectum, At evening seek your abode. Hor. See Examples above; also 335. 4.

444. COMPARISON.-A comparison between two objects requires the comparative degree; between more than two, the superlative:

Prior hōrum, the former of these (two). Nep. Gallōrum fortissimi, the bravest of the Gauls. Caes.

1. WITH THE FORCE OF Too or VERY.-The comparative sometimes has the force of too, unusually, somewhat, and the superlative, the force of very: doctior, too learned, or somewhat learned; doctissimus, very learned.

2. COMPARATIVE AFTER QUAM.-When an object is said to possess one quality in a higher degree than another, both adjectives are put in the comparative; but when it is said to possess one quality rather than another, both are in the positive, the former with măgis or potius:

Clarior quam gratior, more illustrious than pleasing. Liv. Disertus măgis quam săpiens, fluent rather than wise. Cic.

In the first case the positive is sometimes used in one or both members; and in the second case magis is sometimes omitted, and occasionally the adjective before quam is in the comparative.

3. STRENGTHENING WORDS.-Comparatives and Superlatives are often strengthened by a Prep. with its case, ante, prae, praeter, supra (417. 2. 3), ūnus, ūnus omnium, alone, alone of all, far, by far; Comparatives also by etiam, even, still; multo, much, and Superlatives by longe, multo, by far, much, quam, quantus, as possible :

Multo maxima pars, by far the largest part. Cic. Res una omnium difficillima, a thing by far the most difficult of all. Cic. Quam maximae copiae, forces as large as possible. Sall. Quanta maxima vastitas, the greatest possible devastation. Liv. 4. COMPARISON IN ADVERBS has the same force as in adjectives:

Quam saepissime, as often as possible. Cic. Fortius quam felicius, with more bravery than success. Liv.

CHAPTER IV.

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.

RULE XXXIV.-Agreement of Pronouns.

445. A Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in GENDER, NUMBER, and PERSON:

Animal quod sanguinem habet, an animal which has blood. Cic. Ego, qui te confirmo, I who encourage you. Cic. Vis est in virtutibus; eas excita, There is strength in virtues, arouse them. Cic.

1. APPLICATION OF RULE.-This rule applies to all Pronouns when used as nouns. Pronouns used as adjectives conform to the rule for adjec

The Antecedent is the word or words to which the pronoun refers, and whose place it supplies. Thus, in the examples under the rule, animal is the antecedent of quod, and virtūtībus the antecedent of eas.

2. AGREEMENT WITH PERSONAL PRONOUN.-When the antecedent is a Demonstrative in agreement with a Personal pronoun, the relative agrces with the latter:

Tu es is qui me ornasti, You are the one who commended me. Cic.

3. WITH TWO ANTECEDENTS.-When a relative or other pronoun, refers to two or more antecedents, it generally agrees with them conjointly, but it sometimes agrees with the nearest :

Puĕri mulieresque, qui, boys and women, who. Caes. Peccatum ac culpa, quae, error and fault, which. Cic.

1) With antecedents of different genders, the pronoun conforms in gender to the rule for adjectives (439. 2 and 3); hence puěri mulieresque qui, above.

2) With antecedents of different persons, the pronoun prefers the first person to the second, and the second to the third, conforming to the rule for verbs. See 463. 1. 4. WITH PREDICATE NOUN OR APPOSITIVE.—A pronoun sometimes agrees with a Predicate-Noun or an Appositive instead of the antecedent:

Animal quem (for quod) vocamus hominem, the animal which we call man. Cic. Thebae, quod (quae) căput est, Thebes which is the capital. Liv. Ea (id) ĕrat confessio, That (i. e., the action referred to) was a confession. Liv. Flūmen Rhēnus, qui, the river Rhine, which. Caes.

In the last example, qui agrees with the appositive Rhenus; in the other examples, the pronouns quem, quod, and ea, are attracted to agree with their predicate nouns hominem, caput, and confessio.

5. CONSTRUCTION ACCORDING TO SENSE.-Sometimes the pronoun is construed according to the real meaning of the antecedent, without regard to grammatical form; and sometimes it refers to the class of objects to which the antecedent belongs:

Equitātus, qui vīdērunt, the cavalry who saw. Caes. Eārum rērum utrumque, each of these things. Cic. Democritum omittamus; ăpud istos; let us omit Democritus; with such (i. e., as he). Cic.

6. ANTECEDENT OMITTED.-The antecedent of the relative is often omitted when it is indefinite, is the pronoun is, or is implied in a possessive: Sunt qui censeant, There are some who think. Cic. Terra reddit quod accepit, The earth returns what it has received. Cic. Vestra, qui cum integritāte vixistis, hoc interest, This interests you who have lived with integrity. Cic. Here the antecedent is vos, implied in vestra.

7. CLAUSE AS ANTECEDENT.--When the antecedent is a sentence or clause, the pronoun, unless attracted (445. 4), is in the Neuter Singular, but the relative generally adds id as an appositive to such antecedent:

Nos, id quod debet, patria dělectat, Our country delights us, as it ought (lit. that which it owes). Cic.

8. RELATIVE ATTRACTED.-The relative is sometimes attracted into the case of the antecedent, and sometimes agrees with the antecedent repeated: Judice quo (for quem) nosti, the judge whom you know. Hor. Dies in