Ecce tuae litterae, Lo your letter (comes). Cic. Tot sententiae, There are (sunt) so many opinions. Ter. Consul profectus (est), The consul set

out. Liv.

=

1) Făcio is often omitted in short sentences and clauses. Thus with nihil aliud (amplius, minus, etc.) quam, nihil praeterquam merely, si nihil aliud, finem, etc.: Nihil aliud quam stěterunt, They merely stood (did nothing other than). Also in brief expressions of opinion: Recte ille, He does rightly. Cic.

Liv.

368. AGREEMENT. A Nominative in agreement with another nominative is either a Predicate Noun or an Appositive. See 362 and 363.

For the Predicate Nominative after a verb with esse, see 547.

SECTION III.

VOCATIVE.

RULE IV.-Case of Address.

369. The Name of the person or thing addressed is put in the Vocative:

Perge, Laeli, Proceed, Laelius. Cic. Quid est, Cătilīna, Why is it, Catiline? Cic. Tuum est, Servi, regnum, The kingdom is yours, Servius. Liv. O dii immortales, O immortal gods. Cic.

1. WITH INTERJECTIONS.-The vocative is used both with and without interjections.

2. NOMINATIVE FOR VOCATIVE.-In poetry and sometimes in prose, the nominative in apposition with the subject occurs where we should expect the vocative:

Audi tu, popůlus Albānus, Hear ye, Alban people. Liv. Here populus may be treated as a Nom. in apposition with tu, though it may also be treated as an irregular Voc. See 45. 5. 3).

3. VOCATIVE FOR NOMINATIVE.-Conversely the vocative by attraction sometimes occurs in poetry where we should expect the nominative :

Quibus, Hector, ab ōris exspectate věnis, From what shores, Hector, do you anxiously awaited come? Virg.

SECTION IV.

ACCUSATIVE.

370. The Accusative is used

I. As the Direct Object of an Action.
II. As the Subject of an Infinitive.

III. In Agreement with another Accusative.

IV. In an Adverbial Sense-with or without Prepositions.
V. In Exclamations-with or without Interjections.

PART THIRD.

SYNTA X.

CHAPTER I.

SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

SECTION I.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.

343. SYNTAX treats of the construction of sentences. 344. A sentence is thought expressed in language. 345. In their STRUCTURE, sentences are either Simple, Complex, or Compound :

I. A SIMPLE SENTENCE expresses but a single thought:
Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world. Cic.

II. A COMPLEX SENTENCE expresses two (or more) thoughts so related that one is dependent upon the other:

Dōnec ĕris fèlix, multos nůměrābis amicos; So long as you are prospercus, you will number many friends. Ovid.

1. CLAUSES.-In this example two simple sentences, (1) "You will be prosperous," and (2) "You will number many friends," are so united that the first only specifies the time of the second: You will number many friends (when ?), so long as you are prosperous. The parts thus united are called Clauses or Members.

2. PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE.-The part of the complex sentence which makes complete sense of itself-multos numerābis amicos-is called the Principal Clause; and the part which is dependent upon it-donec eris felix-is called the Subordinate Clause.

III. A COMPOUND SENTENCE expresses two or more independent thoughts:

Sol ruit et montes umbrantur, The sun descends and the mountains are shaded. Virg.

346. In their USE, sentences are either Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, or Exclamatory.

I. A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE has the form of an assertion:

Miltiades accusatus est, Miltiades was accused. Nep.

II. An INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE has the form of a question:

Quis non paupertatem extimescit, Who does not fear poverty? Cic

1. INTERROGATIVE WORDS.-Interrogative sentences generally contain some interrogative word—either an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb, or one of the interrogative particles, ne, nonne, num :

1) Questions with ne ask for information: Scribitne, Is he writing? Ne is always thus appended to some other word. But ne appended to the principal verb often suggests the answer yes, while appended to any other word, it often suggests the answer no. It is sometimes appended to utrum, num, or an, without affecting their meaning, and sometimes inserted in the clause after utrum :

Utrum tăceamne, an praedicem, Shall I be silent, or shall I speak? Ter.

2) Questions with nonne expect the answer yes: Nonne scribit, Is he not writing? Non for nonne indicates surprise that there should be any doubt on the question: Non vides, Do you really not see?

3) Questions with num expect the answer no: Num scribit, Is he writing? 4) Questions with an. See 2. 4) below.

5) The interrogative word is sometimes omitted, and sometimes numquid is used for num, and ecquid for ne or nonne: Ecquid vides, Do you not see?

2. DOUBLE QUESTIONS. -Double or disjunctive questions offer a choice or alternative, and generally take one of the following forms:

1) The first clause has utrum, num, or ne, and the second an:

Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est, Is that your fault or ours? Cic.

2) The first clause omits the particle, and the second has an or ne:

Eloquar an sileam, Shall I utter it, or keep silence? Virg.

3) When the second clause is negative, the particle generally unites with the negative, giving annon or necne:

Sunt haec tua verba necne, Are these your words or not? Cic.

4) By the omission of the first clause, the second often stands alone with an, in the sense of or:

An hoc timemus, Or do we fear this? Liv.

5) Other forms are rare.

3. ANSWERS.-In answers the verb or some emphatic word is usually repeated, often with prorsus, vēro, and the like; or if negative, with non:

Dixitne causam? Dixit. Did he state the cause? He stated it. Cic. Possŭmusne tūti esse? Non possumus. Can we be safe? We cannot. Cic.

1) Sometimes the simple particle is used; affirmatively, sāne, étiam, ita, vēro, certe, etc., negatively, non, minime, etc.

Venitne? Non. Has he come? No. Plaut.

III. An IMPERATIVE SENTENCE has the form of a command, exhortation, or entreaty:

Justitiam cole, Cultivate justice. Cic.

IV. An EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE has the form of an exclamation:

Reliquit quos viros, What heroes he has left! Cic.
Exclamatory sentences are often elliptical.

L. ACCUSATIVE AS DIRECT OBJECT.

RULE V.-Direct Object.

371. The Direct Object of an action is put in the Accusative:

Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world. Cic. Lībĕra rem publicam, Free the republic. Cic. Pŏpůli Rōmāni sălūtem defendite, Defend the safety of the Roman people. Cic.

1. The DIRECT OBJECT may be

1) The Object, person or thing, on which the action of the verb is directly exerted, as salutem above.

2) The Effect of the action, i. e., the object produced by it, as mundum above.

3) The Cognate Accusative. Many verbs, generally intransitive, sometimes become so far transitive as to admit an accusative of cognate or kindred meaning:

Eam vitam vivere, to live that life. Cic. Mirum somniare somnium, to dream a wonderful dream. Plaut. Servitutem servire, to serve a servitude. Ter.

ples.

(1) This accusative is usually qualified by an adjective as in the first two exam

(2) Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives often supply the place of the Cognate accusative:

Eadem peccat, He makes the same mistakes. Cic. Hoc stůdet unum, He studies this one thing (this one study). Hor. Id assentior, I make this assent. Cic. Idem glōriāri, to make the same boast. Cic.

(3) The object is often omitted when it is a reflexive (184, 2) or can be easily supplied: moveo moveo me, I move (myself); vertit vertit se, he moves (himself).

(4) Some verbs are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive: augeo, dūro, incipio, laxo, ruo, suppědito, turbo, etc.

2. WITH OR WITHOUT OTHER CASES.-The direct object may be used with all transitive verbs, whether with or without other See 384. 410. 419.

cases.

3. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.-Many verbs transitive in English are intransitive in Latin. See 385. Conversely some verbs intransitive in English are transitive in Latin, or at least are often so used, especially verbs denoting

1) Feeling or Mental State: despero, to despair of; doleo, to grieve for; gěmo, to sigh over; horreo, to shudder at; lăcrimo, to weep over; moereo, to mourn over; miror, to wonder at; rideo, to laugh at; sitio, to thirst for,

etc.

Honōres desperat, He despairs of honors. Cic. Haec gemebant, They were sighing over these things. Cic. Detrimenta ridet, He laughs at losses. Hor. 2) Taste or Smell: oleo, săpio, and their compounds, both literally and figuratively:

Olet unguenta, He smells of perfumes. Ter. Oratio redolet antiquitatem, The oration smacks of antiquity. Cic.

4. COMPOUNDS OF PREPOSITIONS.-We notice two classes:

1) Many compounds become transitive by the force of the prepositions with which they are compounded, especially compounds of circum, per, praeter, trans, super, and subter:

Murmur concionem pervāsit, A murmur went through the assembly. Liv. Rhenum transierunt, They crossed (went across) the Rhine. Caes.

2) Many compounds, without becoming strictly transitive, admit an Accus. dependent upon the preposition :

Circumstant sĕnātum, They stand around the senate. Cic.

5. Clause as OBJECT.—An Infinitive or a Clause may be used as Direct Object:

Imperare cupiunt, They desire to rule. Just. Sentimus călêre ignem, We perceive that fire is hot. Cic.

6. PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION.-When a verb takes the passive construction

1) The direct object of the active becomes the subject of the passive, and 2) The subject of the active becomes the Ablative of Cause (414) or the Ablative of Agent with a or ab (414. 5).

Thebani Lysandrum occiderunt, The Thebans slew Lysander. Passive: Lysander occisus est a Thēbānis, Lysander was slain by the Thebans. Nep.

7. ACCUSATIVE IN SPECIAL INSTANCES.-Participles in dus, verbal adjectives in bundus, and in Plautus a few verbal nouns, occur with the accusative:

Vitabundus castra, avoiding the camp. Liv. Quid tibi hanc curatio est rem, What care have you of this? Plaut.

the

372. Two ACCUSATIVES.-Two accusatives without any connective, expressed or understood, may depend upon same verb. They may denote

1. The same person or thing.
2. Different persons or things.

Any number of accusatives connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, may of course depend upon the same verb.

RULE VI.-Two Accusatives-Same Person.

373. Verbs of MAKING, CHOOSING, CALLING, REGARDING, SHOWING, and the like, admit two Accusatives of the same person or thing:

Hămilcărem impĕrātōrem fecerunt, They made Hamilcar commander. Nep. Ancum regem populus creavit, The people elected Ancus king. Liv. Summum consilium appellârunt Senatum, They called their highest council Senate. Cic. Se praestitit propugnātōrem libertatis, He showed