I. VERBS FROM NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 331. Verbs formed from nouns and adjectives end in 1. Asco and esco occur in Inceptives. See 332. II. 2. Deponent.-Derivatives, like other verbs, may of course be deponent: dominor, to domineer, from dominus. II. VERBS FROM VERBS. 332. Verbs derived from other verbs are-Frequentatives, Inceptives, Desideratives, and Diminutives. I. FREQUENTATIVES denote repeated or continued action. They are of the first conjugation and are formed 1. From Supines in ātum by changing ātum into ĭto: clam-ĭto, to exclaim, to flit, from clamo, clamātum. 2. From other Supines by changing um into o, sometimes ito: to assist often, from adjŭvo, adjūtum. adjūt-o, habit-o, lect-ito, to have often, to read oftere, 66 habeo, habitum. 1) Ito is sometimes added to the Present Stem of verbs of Conj. III. : ago, agito; quaero, quaerito. 2) Esso and isso form derivatives which are generally classed with frequentatives, though they are intensive in force, denoting earnest rather than repeated action, and are of Conj. III.: facio, facesso, to do earnestly; incipio, incipisso, to begin eagerly. The regular frequentatives sometimes have the same force: rapio, rapto, to seize eagerly. II. INCEPTIVES, or INCHOATIVES, denote the beginning of the action. They are of the third conjugation, and end in 1. Asco is used in inceptives from verbs of Conj. I., and in a few from nouns and adjectives: puer, puerasco, to become a boy. 2. Esco is by far the most common ending, and is used in inceptives from verbs of Conj. II., and in many from nouns and adjectives: dūrus, dūresco, to grow hard. III. DESIDERATIVES denote a desire to perform the action. They are of the fourth conjugation and are formed from the Supine by changing um into ŭrio : ĕs-ŭrio, to desire to eat, from ědo, to desire to buy, 66 ĕmo, ĕsum. emptum. IV. DIMINUTIVES denote a feeble action. They are of the first conjugation and are formed from the Present by changing the ending into illo: 333. Adverbs are formed from Nouns, Adjectives, Participles, Pronouns, and Prepositions. I. ADVERBS FROM NOUNS. 334. Adverbs are formed from nouns. 1. By simply taking a case-ending, especially that of the ablative: tempore, tempori, in time; forte, by chance; jure, with right, rightly. 2. By taking special endings: 1) atim, tim, denoting MANNER: grex, gregātim, by herds; fur, furtim, by stealth. 2) ĭtus denoting ORIGIN, SOURCE: coelum, coelitus, from heaven; fundus, funditus, from the foundation. II. ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 335. Adverbs from adjectives and participles generally end in doctus, docte, learnedly; liber, libère, freely; elegans, eleganter, elegantly; prūdens, prudenter, prudently; celer, celeriter, quickly. 1. E is added to the stems of most adjectives and participles of Dec. I. and II. See examples. 2. Er and ĭter are added to the stems of adjectives of Dec. III.-er to stems in nt, iter to other stems.-Er and iter also occur in adverbs from adjectives and participles of Dec. I. and II. 3. Atim, im, and ĭtus also occur in adverbs from primitives of Dec. I. and II. singuli, singulātim, one by one; passus, passim, everywhere; divīnus, divinitus, divinely. 4. OTHER FORMS.-Certain forms of adjectives sometimes become adverbs: 1) Neuters in e, um, rarely a: fucile, easily; multum, multa, much. 2) Ablatives in a, o, is: dextra, on the right; consulto, designedly; paucis, briefly, in few words. 8) Accusatives in am: bifariam, in two parts; multifariam, in many parts or places (partem, understood). 5. NUMERAL ADVERBS.-See 181. III. ADVERBS FROM PRONOUNS. 336. Various adverbs are formed from Pronouns: thus from hic, ille, and iste are formed IV. ADVERBS FROM PREPOSITIONS. 337. A few adverbs are formed from Prepositions, or are at least related to them: intra, intro, within; ultra, ultro, beyond; in, intus, within; sub, subtus, beneath. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 338. The elements of a compound may unite in three distinct ways: I. The two elements unite without change of form: decem-viri, the decemvirs, ten men; ab-eo, to go away; ante-pono, to place before." 1 II. One element, generally the first, is put in an oblique case, generally the genitive, dependent upon the other: legis-lator, legislator, from lex, legis, and lator. III. The stem of the first element unites with the second element, either with or without a connecting vowel-generally, sometimes e or u: bell-i-gero, to wage war, from bellum and gero, with connecting vowel; magn-animus, magnanimous, from magnus and animus, without connecting vowel. 1. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION admit the following euphonic changes. A, ab, abs :-a before m and v; abs before c, p, t; ab before the vowels and the other consonants: a-mitto; abs-condo; ab-eo, ab-jicio. But abs before p drops b: as-porto for abs-porto. Ab becomes au in au-fero and au-fugio. Ad,—unchanged before vowels and before b, d, h, j, m, and v; d generally assimilated before the other consonants, but changed to c before q and dropped before gn and often before sc, sp, and st; ad-eo, ad-do, ad-jungo; affero, al-ligo; ac-quiro, a-gnosco (ad and gnosco), a-scendo. Ante, unchanged, except in anti-cipo and anti-sto. Com for cum,-(1) unchanged before b, m, p: com-bibo, com-mitto,— (2) m generally dropped before vowels, h, and gn: co-eo, co-haereo, co-gnosco, −(3) m assimilated before l, n, r: col-ligo, cor-rumpo,-(4) m changed to n before the other consonants: con-fero, con-gĕro. E, ex:-ex before vowels and before c, h, p, q, s, t, and with assimilation before f; e generally before the other consonants and sometimes before and s: ex-eo, ex-pōno, ef-fero; e-dúco, e-ligo, e-pōto, e-scendo. S after ex is often dropped: exspecto or expecto. p In,-n assimilated before l, m, r, changed to m before b, p; dropped before gn; in other situations unchanged: il-lūdo, im-mitto; im-buo, im-põno; i-gnosco; in-eo, in-dúco. Inter, unchanged, except in intel-ligo. Ob,-b assimilated before c, f, g, p; in other situations generally unchanged: oc-curro, of-ficio, og-gero, op-pōno; ob-jício, ob-sto. But b is dropped in o-mitto, and an old form obs occurs in a few words: obs-olesco, os-tendo for obs-tendo (b dropped). Per, unchanged, except in pel-licio, pel-lūceo, and pe-jero. 1 Except of course euphonic changes. Pro,-sometimes prod before a vowel: prod-eo, prod-igo. Sub,-b assimilated before c, f, g, p, generally before m and r; dropped before sp; in other situations unchanged; suc-cumbo, su-spicio for sub-spicio; sub-eo, sub-dúco. An old form subs shortened to sus occurs in a few words: sus-cipio, sus-pendo. Trans,—drops s before 8, and often ns before d, j, n: trans-eo, transfero; tran-silio for trans-silio; tra-do for trans-do; tra-jicio for trans-jicio; tra-no for trans-no. 2. INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS (307) also admit euphonic changes: Ambi, amb:-amb before vowels; ambi, am, or an before consonants: amb-igo; ambi-dens, am-puto, an-quiro. Dis, di:-dis before c, p, q, t, s before a vowel, and, with assimilation, before f; di in most other situations; dis-curro, dis-pōno, dif-fluo; di-dúco, di-moveo. But dir occurs in dir-imo and dir-ibeo (dis and habeo), and both dis and di occur before j: dis-jungo, di-judico. Re, red:-red before vowels, before h, and in red-do; re in other situations: red-eo, red-igo, red-hibeo; re-clūdo, re-vello. COMPOUND NOUNS. 339. In compound nouns the first part is generally a noun, but sometimes an adjective, adverb, or preposition; the second part is a verb or noun : 1. GENITIVE IN COMPOUNDS.-In compounds of two nouns, or of a noun and an adjective, the first part is often a genitive: legis-lātor, legislator; juris-consultus, lawyer. 2. COMPOUNDS IN fex, cen, and cola are among the most important compounds of nouns and verbs; fex from făcio; cen from cano; cola from colo; art-i-fex, artist; tub-i-cen, trumpeter; agr-ž-cola, husbandman. COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 340. In compound adjectives the first part is generally a noun, adjective, or preposition, and the second a noun, adjective, or verb: |