304. Adverbs may be divided, according to their sig. nification, into four principal classes:

jam,

now.

jamdiū,

long since. ōlim, formerly.

III. ADVERBS OF MANNER, MEANS, DEGREE.

nondum, not yet.

saepě,

often.

nunc,
nunquam,

now.

sěměl,

once.

unquam,

ever.

305. COMPARISON.-Most Adverbs are derived from adjectives, and are dependent upon them for their comparison. The comparative is the neuter singular of the adjective, and the superlative changes the ending us of the adjective into ē:

1. MAGIS AND MAXIME.-When the adjective is compared with măgis and maxime, the adverb is compared in the same way:

egregius,

egregie,

măgis egregius,
măgis egregie,

maxime egregius,
maxime egregie,

excellent.
excellently.

2. IRREGULAR COMPARISON.-When the adjective is irregular, the adverb has the same irregularity:

3. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON.-When the adjective is defective, the adverb

is generally defective:

4. COMPARED.-A few not derived from adjectives are compared:

novus,

nove,

5. NOT COMPARED.-Most adverbs not derived from adjectives, as also those from adjectives incapable of comparison (169), are not compared: hic, here; nunc, now; vulgariter, commonly.

6. SUPERLATIVES IN O OR um are used in a few adverbs: prīmo, prīmum, potissimum.

PREPOSITIONS.

306. The Preposition is the part of speech which shows the relations of objects to each other: in Italia esse, to be in Italy; ante me, before me.

For list of prepositions, see 433-435.

307. INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS.-Ambi, amb, around, about; dis, di, asunder; re, red, back; se, aside, apart; ne and ve, not, are called inseparable prepositions, because they are used only in composition.

CONJUNCTIONS.

308. Conjunctions are mere connectives: pater ET filius, the father and son; pater AUT filius, the father or son.

309. Conjunctions are divided, according to their use, into two classes:

I. COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS,-which connect similar constructions: labor voluptasque, labor and pleasure; Carthaginem cepit ac diruit, he took and destroyed Carthage.

II. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS,-which connect subordinate with principal constructions: haec dum colligunt, effugit, while they collect these things, he escapes.

I. COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

310. Coördinate Conjunctions comprise five subdivisions :

1. COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting union:

Et, què, atquě, ac, and. Etiam, quoquè, also. Něquě, něc, and not. Nèque—néqué, něc—něc, něquĕ—něc, neither—nor.

2. DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting separation: Aut, věl, vě, sīvě (seu), or. Aut—aut, včl—věl, either-or. Sīvě— sīvě, either-or.

3. ADVERSATIVE, CONJUNCTIONS, denoting opposition :

Sēd, autem, vērum, vēro, but. At, but, on the contrary. Atquï, but rather. Ceterum, but still. Tămen, yet.

4. ILLATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting inference:

Ergo, igitur, inde, proinde, ĭtăque, hence, therefore. See also 587, IV. 2. 5. CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting cause:

Nam, namque, enim, etĕnim, for.

II. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

311. Subordinate Conjunctions comprise eight subdivisions :

1. TEMPORAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting time:

Quando, quum, when. Ut, ŭbi, as, when. Quum primum, ut primum, ŭbi prīmum, sămăl, simŭlac, simulatque, as soon as. Dum, dōněc, quoad, quamdiu, while, until, as long as. Antequam, priusquam, before. Posteǎquam, after.

2. COMPARATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting comparison: Ut, uti, sicut, sīcŭtī, as, so as. Vělŭt, just as. Praeŭt, proŭt, according as, in comparison with. Quam, as. Tanquam, quăsi, ŭt sī, āc sī, vělŭt sī, as if.

3. CONDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting condition:

Si, if. Si non, nĭsī, nī, if not. Sin, but if. Si quidem, if indeed. Si modo, dum, mõdõ, dummodò, if only.

4. CONCESSIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting concession :

Quamquam, licet, quum, although. Etsi, tămetsī, etiamsī, even if. Quamvis, quantumvis, quantumlibet, however much, although. Ut, grant that. Nē, grant that not.

5. FINAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting purpose or end:

Ut, ŭtī, that, in order that. Nē, nēvě (neu), that not. Quō, that. Quominus, that not.

6. CONSECUTIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting consequence

or result:

Ut, so that. Ut non, quin, so that not.

7. CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting cause:

Quiă, quod, because. Quum, since. Quoniam, quando, quandoquídem, siquidem, since indeed.

8. INTERROGATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting inquiry:

Ně, nonně, num, utrum, an, whether. An nōp, necne, or not.

INTERJECTIONS.

312. Interjections are certain particles used as expressions of feeling or as mere marks of address. They may

express

1. Astonishment: ō, hem, ehem, hui, aha, ătat, păpae, vah, en, occě. 2. Joy: io, ha, he, eu, ēvoe.

3. Sorrow: vae, hei, heu, eheu, ohē, ah, au, prō or proh.

4. Disgust: ahă, phuî, ăpăgě.

5. Calling: heus, o, eho, ehodum.

6. Praise: eugě, ejă, hejă.

CHAPTER VI.

FORMATION OF WORDS.

313. WORDS may be formed in two ways:

I. By DERIVATION; i. e., by the addition of certain endings to the stems of other words: amor, love, from amo, to love.

II. BY COMPOSITION; i. e., by the union of two or more words or their stems: benevolens, well-wishing, from bene, well, and volens, wishing.

1. SIMPLE and COMPOUND.-Words formed by composition are called Compounds; those not thus formed are called Simple Words.

2. PRIMITIVE and DERIVATIVE.-Simple words formed by derivation are called Derivatives; those not thus formed are called Primitives.

DERIVATION OF WORDS.

NOUNS.

314. Nouns are derived from other Nouns, from Ad

jectives, and from Verbs.

I. NOUNS FROM NOUNS.

315. DIMINUTIVES generally end in

ŭlus, ŭla, ŭlum, călus, cŭla, călum.

1. Ulus, ŭla, ŭlum are generally added to the stems of nouns of Dec.

I. and II., and to some of Dec. III.

2. Olus, ŏla, ŏlum are used for ulus, ula, ulum, when a vowel precedes: filiolus, little son, from filius; filiola, little daughter, from filia; atriŏlum, small hall, from atrium.

3. Ellus, ella, ellum; illus, illa, illum, are sometimes used, es pecially with primitives of Dec. I. and II., whose stems end in 1, n, or r; but el and il in these endings generally displace the last syllable of the stem: ocellus, small eye, from oculus; fabella, short fable, from fabula; bacillum, small staff, from baculum.

4. Călus, cŭla, cŭlum are used with primitives of Dec. IV. and V., and with some of Dec. III. These are appended

1) To the Nominative: flos, flos-cúlus; mulier, muliercůla; munus, munusculum.

2) To the Stem with a connecting vowel i, sometimes e: pons (bridge), pont-iculus; pars, particula; vulpes (fox), vulpecula.

3) To the Stem of nouns in o (G. onis, inis), with stem-vowel changed to u: homo (man), homun-cŭlus; virgo (maiden), virguncŭla. Like nouns in o, a few other words form diminutives in unculus, uncúla: avus (uncle), avunculus; domus (house), domuncula.

5. Uleus and cio are rare: equuleus, a small horse, from equus; homuncio, a small man, from homo.

316. PATRONYMICS, or names of descent, generally

1. Ides (1) and is are the common endings.

2. Ides (1) and ēis are used especially with primitives in eus.

3. Iǎdes, ǎdes, and ias, as, are used principally with primitives in ius, and in those in as and es of Dec. I.-Aeneas has Aeneădes, masc, and Aeneis, fem.