the duke of Somerset, and the duke of Monmouth (1685). The white tower, a large, square, irregular building, erected in 1070, consists of three stories. On the first story are the sea armory, consisting of muskets for the sea-service, and other warlike implements of every description, and the volunteer armory, for 30,000 men. Within the white tower is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by the English monarchs, which now forms a part of the record office. South of the white tower is the modelling room, in which are models of Gibraltar and other places; but no strangers are admitted. The parade near the white tower is much frequented as a promenade. The office of the keeper of the records contains the rolls from the time of king John to the beginning of the reign of Richard III. Those since that period are kept at the Rolls chapel, Chancery lane. The price of a search is 10s. 6d., for which you may pursue one subject a year. The jewel office is a strong stone room, in which are kept the crown jewels, or regalia. The imperial crown, and the other emblems of royalty, such as the golden orb, the golden sceptre and its cross, the sceptre with the dove, St. Edward's staff, state salt-cellar, curtana or sword of mercy, golden spurs, armilla or bracelets, ampulla or golden eagle, and the golden spoon, also the silver font used at the baptism of the royal family, the state crown worn by his majesty in parliament, and a large collection of ancient plate, are kept here. The horse armory is a brick building, east of the white tower, adorned with suits of armor of almost every description; but the most striking are the effigies of the English kings on horseback, armed cap-à-pie. The line commences with William the Conqueror, and extends to George II. Several of the cuirasses and helmets taken at Waterloo are also kept here. The grand storehouse, north of the white tower, about 345 feet in length and 60 in breadth, is composed of brick and stone, was begun by James II, and finished by William III. upper story is occupied by the small armory, containing arms for about 200,000 men, all kept bright and clean, and numerous historical curiosities. The Spanish armory is principally occupied by the trophies taken from the Spanish armada, such as thumb-screws, battle-axes, boarding-pikes, &c. Here also are shown a representation of queen Elizabeth in rmor; the axe which severed the head of Auna Boleyn, as well as that of the

The

earl of Essex; the invincible banner taken from the Spanish armada; a wooden cannon used by Henry VIII, at the siege of Boulogne, &c. The Beauchamp tower is noted for the illustrious personages formerly confined within its walls. Amongst them were the ill-fated Anna Boleyn and the accomplished lady Jane Grey. The former is said to have written her memorable letter to Henry VIII in the apartment called the mess-house. The lion's tower, built by Edward IV, was originally called the bulwark, but received its present name from being occupied as the menagerie. It is situated on the right of the inner entrance to the Tower; but the animals kept here are not numerous.-See Bayley's History of the Tower (2 vols., 4to., 1821), and Britton and Brayley's Memoirs of the Tower (1 vol., 12mo., 1830).

TOWNLEY, Charles, a gentleman of large fortune, which he employed in the collection of antiquities, was born at Townley hall, in Lancashire, in 1737. The religious opinions of his family preventing his receiving a university education in England, he was sent to the continent; and a residence at Rome enabled him to form a museum, replete with valuable manuscripts, specimens of the finest sculpture, medals, vases, urns and other relics of ancient art. These he transported, eventually, to England, and bequeathed to the British museum. (See Terra Cotta.) His death took place January 3, 1805.

TOWNS. We have already given an account of the rise and growth of towns in modern Europe, and of their moral and political influence upon society, in the articles City, and Community. (See these articles, and also Hanse Towns, and Free Cities.) In a general sense, town, in England, is a walled place, or borough, and comprehends the several species of cities, boroughs (q. v.), and common towns or villages; but, in a narrower sense, it is restricted to the latter class of places, a city being a place which is or has been a bishop's see, and a borough a place which sends members to parliament. In the U. States, where the different states are divided into counties (with the exception of South Carolina and Louisiana, in the former of which the divisions are termed districts, and in the latter, parishes), the word town has a somewhat different signification. In the New England and Middle States (with the exception of Delaware), and in Ohio, the counties are subdivided into townships, which, at least in many of the states, are improp

erly styled towns, while by cities is commonly meant those places which are incorporated with certain peculiar municipal powers. In the New England states, the townships differ much in extent, varying from five to six miles square. They are incorporated by the legislatures of the states with certain rights, and a distinct police, conducted by officers chosen annually by the inhabitants. Some of the principal officers are a town-clerk, selectmen, assessors of taxes, overseers of the poor, school committee, &c. The townships in the New England states, and in New York, are subdivided into school districts of a convenient size, in which free schools are maintained at least a part of every year. The money necessary for the support of the schools and the poor, for the repair of roads, &c., is raised in each town by vote of the inhabitants. Each of these towns thus constitutes a little democracy, in which the affairs of the community are managed by the people themselves in their town-meetings.

TOWTON; a village of England, in Yorkshire, three miles south-east of Tadcaster. A sanguinary battle was fought here, between the forces of the houses of York and Lancaster, in 1461, in which the latter were completely defeated. (See Edward IV.)

TOXICOLOGY (from ročkov, properly the poison which the ancients put upon arrows and spears); the science of poisons and antidotes. The works of Frank and Orfila are distinguished in this branch, also Buchner's and Witting's. (See Poisons.) TRACHEOTOMY, or BRONCHOTOMY (from trachea, or poyxos, the windpipe, and revw, to cut); also LARYNGOTOMY (from Aapuys, the larynx, and rev). This is an operation in which an opening is made into the larynx, or windpipe, either for the purpose of making a passage for the air into and out of the lungs, when any disease prevents the patient from breathing through the mouth and nostrils, or of extracting foreign bodies, which have accidentally fallen into the windpipe; or, lastly, in order to be able to inflate the lungs, in cases of sudden suffocation, drowning, &c. Its practicableness, and little danger, are founded on the facility with which certain wounds of the windpipe, even of the most complicated kind, have been healed, without leaving any ill effects whatever, and on the nature of the parts cut, which are not furnished with any vessel of consequence. TRACKSHUYT. (See Treckshuyt.)

TRACTORS, METALLIC. (See Perkins.) TRADE OF THE WORLD. (See Commerce of the World.)

TRADE-WINDS (so called from their favoring commerce); easterly winds which constantly prevail, with slight variations, in certain regions within the tropics. It is a common notion, that the north-east trade-wind blows exactly from the northeast point nearly to the equator, when it gradually becomes more and more easterly, till at length it blows due east; and so with the south-east trade. This notion is, however, erroneous. The trade-winds, in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, extend to about 28° of latitude each side of the equator; so that a ship, after passing 30°, may expect to enter them every day. But, on first entering them, they will be found to blow from the east, or even a little southerly, and, as you advance, to draw round gradually to north-east, and even north, at the southern limit of the north-east trade, where it is commonly represented as being due east. This limit varies with the position of the sun, reaching, when the sun has a southern declination, to within three or four de grees north latitude, and, as the sun acquires a more northern declination, receding ten or twelve degrees from the equator. At this point, the mariner enters the region of calms and variables, as they are called, where the wind has a more or less southerly direction, and sometimes blows freshly from the southsouth-west. This region varies from 150 to 550 miles, and is subject to heavy rains. On passing this range, the southeast trade begins, and displays the same phenomena as the north-east. To the north and south of the north-east and south-east trades, westerly winds will be found generally to prevail, though less regular in the northern than in the southern hemisphere; and it has been remarked that the average of the passages made by the Liverpool packets from New York out, for a period of six years, was twenty. three days, and from Liverpool to New York, that is, from east to west, thirtyeight days.

TRADITION, in its general application, is any knowledge handed down from one generation to another by oral communica tion. This is the shape in which history appears before the art of writing is invent ed or introduced; and the later this takes place, the farther back does tradition extend, till it loses itself in mythology. Any person who has noticed the manner in which facts are distorted, even at the

present day, if not protected against grad ual change and misrepresentation by un questionable documents, although the sources of correct information have been so greatly increased, will easily understand why historical tradition is to be received with the utmost caution. Every person, every country, every age, invol untarily gives a coloring to facts, to say nothing of intentional misstatements. But there is a species of historical tradition which exists even after the invention not only of writing, but of printing. It is the repetition of hearsay, by which misrepresentations of facts, or downright inventions, creep into notice, and soon become widely repeated and believed, either because they suit the purposes of a party, or because they are presented with an air of credibility. How many stories, believed for centuries, have at last been proved utterly false! how many are yet in the mouths of millions, and, nevertheless, untrue! It becomes the historian, therefore, to examine into the origin of every statement, and the character and situation of those on whose authority it rests: did they know with certainty what they relate ? were they not actuated by interest, passion or prejudice? The same caution which the historian must observe in regard to traditions, politicians and citizens of a free government ought to exercise in regard to those party rumors which we might term political traditions. Without such caution, a free people becomes the tools of demagogues. Every statement in print receives, from this very circumstance, a kind of authority; and what has not been said in print? Newspapers (q. v.), much as they contribute to general information, also contribute much to the propagation of these unfounded reports. The counterstatements of opposite papers serve, indeed, in some measure, to correct each other's misrepresentations; but, as the mass of people read only the papers of their own party, misstatements will inevitably gain a footing; and a man who is desirous of believing only the truth, must subject the stories admitted on hearsay by his party to a critical scrutiny. It was long believed that a female was raised to the papal chair, under the name of John VIII (see Joan the Papess); and how many persons have credited the newspaper stories that Napoleon'used to beat his wife, and had criminal intercourse with his daughter-in-law! The story of the beating is, in fact, still repeated in some histories of Napoleon, so called! It is a very common mistake to 27

VOL. XII.

ascribe to the statements of ancient writers full credibility, though the writer may have lived in a time or country so distant from that to which his narrative relates, that he had no better opportunity of judging than ourselves. (See Niebuhr's Roman History.)-Tradition, in another sense, forms one of the chief points of disagreement between the Roman Catholics and Protestants, perhaps the most important. The Catholic understands by tradition the unwritten word of God, that is, sacred truths orally communicated by Jesus and the apostles, which were not written down, but, by the assistance of the Holy Ghost, were preserved in the church from one generation of bishops to another. The chief sources of it are considered to be the fathers of the church, who, indeed, introduced rites not prescrib ed by the Bible, and some of which, as the baptism of children, confession, the celebration of certain festivals, &c., have been retained by many Protestant sects, yet with different views from those entertained by the Catholics respecting their importance, or necessity for salvation. The Catholics ascribe to their tradition divine authority, and thus make it a principle in their dogmatics. They maintain that the church has always remained in possession of the revelation of the Holy Ghost, which the apostles enjoyed, and that this revelation or belief of the church is ascertained by the decrees of the councils (q. v.), the concurrence of the fathers of the church, and the decrees of the popes (the Gallican church, however, does not give this authority to the decrees of the pope, unless they are acquiesced in by the church universal, though it admits that this acquiescence may be tacit). The Bible, indeed, is adopted as a rule of faith by the Catholics as well as by the Protestants; but the former consider it as to be explained and understood according to the construction which the church puts upon the doctrines contained in it-a principle sanctioned by the council of Trent. A reverence for tradition, therefore, is taught in all Catholic catechisms; and it is the foundation on which the Catholic believes in his rites, and the characteristic parts of his religious worship. In the Canones et Decreta Concilii Tridentini, Appendix, p. rrii, we find in pope Pius's creed the following passage: Apostolicas et ecclesiasticas traditiones, reliquæque ejusdem ecclesiæ observationes et constitutiones firmissime admitto et amplector.

Hem, sacram scripturam juxta eum sensum, quem tenuit et tenet sancta mater eccle

sia, cujus est judicare de vero sensu et interpretatione sacrarum scripturarum, admitto; nec eam unquam, nisi juxta unanimem, consensum patrum accipiam, et interpretabor. The council of Trent ascribes equal authority to tradition and the Bible. It has been said, indeed, that it ought to have given greater authority to the former, as the latter can only, by the council's own decree, be legitimately explained by the church or traditions. From all that has been said, it appears that tradition is to the Catholic what reason is to the rationalist, and the literal text of the Bible, scientifically and conscientiously settled, to the supernaturalist. (See Roman Catholic Church.)

TRADITORES; a name given, in the first ages of the church, to those Christians who, during the persecutions, especially those under Diocletian, gave up the sacred books and utensils to the heathen authorities, to escape the dangers which threatened them. They were generally timorous priests, and were punished by the church with dismissal from office. The Donatists (q. v.) considered the Traditores on a level with the worst heretics, and separated from the Catholic church on the ground that it tolerated them. (See Donatists.)

TRADUCIANS (from traduco, to transmit); a name which the Pelagians anciently gave to the Catholics, because of their teaching that original sin was transmitted from father to children. At present, the term is sometimes applied to those who hold that souls are transmitted to children by the parents.

TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF. (See Navy, where it is fully described.)

TRAGEDY (from the Greek and Latin tragædia). The Greek word is derived from Tpayos, and on, a song. It is an old, but not, therefore, less absurd opinion, says Adelung, in his Wörterbuch, that the first part of the word roayos signifies, in this composition, a he goat, and the whole, a song in honor of Bacchus, sung at the sacrifice of a he goat, or a play, for which the poet received a he goat—a derivation occasioned by its being generally known that Tpayos signifies a he goat, while it is not so commonly known that it also signifies melancholy, of which the Latin tragicus is a clear proof; otherwise that word would have signified goatish. Hesychius explains ExTpaywda, explicitly, by año, anobonva, he weeps. In the ancient Upper German, the word Trego signifies grief; in Lower Saxon, träge is weary, sad; and in Swedish, träga means to mourn, and

träge, grief; all of which are connected with the Greek 7payikos, or payos. Trag dy, therefore, properly signifies a melancholy song, as comedy signifies a gay one. But that rayos, in Greek, signifies both a he goat and melancholy, is as accidental as that ram, in English, means a male sheep, and also to drive down. So far Mr. Adelung. The invention of tragedy, in its first rude form, is ascribed to Thespis, who lived in the time of Solon. According to Herodotus, the people of Sicyon introduced tragic choruses before the times of Thespis, first in honor of Bacchus, then of Adrastus; to them, therefore, the invention of the Greek tragedy is generally ascribed; its developement is due to Eschylus. As Aristotle found it, he described it as a dramatic poem, which has for its object to purify by terror and pity, awakened by the poetical imitation of an action. To understand this oft-repeated explanation, we must examine the meaning of purifying passions by means of passions. The artificial production of those passions which affect us disagreeably, cannot well have any effect in purifying the soul, except by strengthening the mind, and exercising it in governing the passions in general. For such a purpose, indeed, a state of mind seems proper, in which man feels at the same time the influence of strong emotions, and the power to free himself from their influence at pleasure. Into this state tragedy strives to bring us. It aims to awaken in us those passions which rest on sympathy (and which, therefore, impede our inward "freedom less than the purely selfish ones), by an artificial appearance, by truth of concep tion without reality of action, and whilst it does not hide the want of reality, it leaves us the feeling of ability to free ourselves from the influence of the scene at pleasure, even if it were only by the consciousness that the whole is but appearance. Who could calmly witness the performance of a tragedy if he really thought, but for a moment, the sufferings represented on the stage were real? The poet strives to operate upon us by the liveliness of his creations, and thus to arouse within us those powers which counteract the passions. As the exercise of these powers is the object in view, he must avoid carrying the sympathetic emotion so far, that we can escape the pain only by a complete destruction of the illusion; because, as soon as we take this means, that exercise of the moral faculty ceases. We must be able to suffer

the conception of being in the situation of the actors, even when we see them perish, by feeling in ourselves the existence of those powers, of which they, for the moment, seem to be deprived. From this point of view, the definition of Aristotle is perhaps to be reconciled with what has been said, in modern times, on the essence of tragedy. Even dramatic writers have confounded the melancholy with the tragic; but it may be deduced from what has been said, that the essence of tragedy does not depend on the melancholy end, on the tears extorted, but on the greatness and elevation of the chief idea contained in the fable, and which it illustrates, as by a living example. Whilst we pity the suffering depicted, we must be able to delight in the nobleness of its cause, as, otherwise, no feeling is excited in us but a purely painful one, from which we can only escape by the idea that the whole spectacle is an illusion. Many theories have been started to explain what is properly the tragical in tragedy, some very obscure, others less so; as that the tragical is founded on the struggle of human freedom with necessity, of the will with fate, &c. But the comic, the true comic, is, in many cases, nothing else. This struggle belongs to the drama in general. (See Drama.)

TRAJAN. M. Ulpius Trajanus, a Roman emperor, born in Italica, in the Spanish province of Bætica, was the son of Trajanus, a distinguished Roman commander, under Vespasian. He accompanied his father in a campaign against the Parthians, and also served on the Rhine, where he acquired so high a character, that when the excellent and aged Nerva came to the throne, he adopted him, and raised him to the rank of Cæsar, in 97, being then in his forty-second, or, according to some, in his fortyfifth year, and of a most dignified appearance and commanding aspect. His elevation immediately curbed the insolence of the pretorian guards; and Nerva dying a few months after, he peaceably succeeded to the throne. He was at that time in Germany, where he remained for more than a year, to settle a peace with the German states, and, in 99, set out with a numerous escort to Rome. After a liberal largess to the soldiers and people, he took measures for supplying the capital with corn; in which he was eminently successful. He then proceeded to punish and banish the pernicious tribe of informers, and to reduce some of the most odious of the taxes, and showed the most praiseworthy

solicitude to fill the most important posts with men of talent and integrity. Like Augustus, he cultivated personal friendships, and visited his intimates at their houses with entire confidence, and as a private person. His palace was open to his friends and to all who chose to enter it, and his audiences were free to all the citizens. At his table were always some of the most respectable Romans, who indulged in the ease of mixed conversation. Although his early military experience had prevented him from acquiring the accomplishments of learning, he was sensible of its importance, and founded libraries; and under his patronage, the studies were revived which had suffered from the persecution of Domitian. His virtues procured for him, by the unanimous voice of the senate, the title of Optimus. In the third year of his reign, he accepted of a third consulship; and during his possession of this magistracy, the celebrated panegyric upon him was pronounced by Pliny, which is still extant. In the following year, a war broke out with Decebalus, king of the Dacians, whom he subdued. He then returned to Rome, and enjoyed the honors of a triumph, with the name of Dacicus. The two following years he passed at Rome, and in the last of them, 103, Pliny was made governor of Pontus and Bithynia, which circumstance gave rise to a series of official letters between him and Trajan, which, beyond any rhetorical panegyric, afford proof of the liberal spirit of the government. Among these are the famous epistles respecting the Christians, whom he directs Pliny not to search for, but to punish if brought before him; and on no account to listen to anonymous charges. In 104, Decebalus renewed the war with the Romans, which immediately called out the warlike emperor, who, with a view to form a road for his troops, constructed a bridge over the Danube, which was deemed one of the greatest works of antiquity. He then marched into Dacia, and reduced the capital of Decebalus, who, in despair, killed himself; and Dacia became a Roman province. His passion for war-the only fault which can be charged on Trajan as a sovereign-exhibits him, for the remainder of his reign, rather as a victorious commander, engaged in distant expeditions for the enlargement of the empire, than as a sovereign ruler. The disposal of the crown of Armenia led, in the first instance, to a contest with Chosroes the Parthian, of which war the