CHAP. VIII.

Of inquiring into the Sense and Meaning of any Writer or Speaker, and especially the Sense of the Sacred Writings.

IT is a great unhappiness, that there is such an ambiguity in words and forms of speech, that the same sentence may be drawn into different significations; whereby it comes to pass, that it is dif ficult sometimes for the reader exactly to hit upon the ideas which the writer or speaker had in his mind. Some of the best rules to direct us herein are such as these:

I. Be well acquainted with the tongue itself, or language, wherein the author's mind is expressed. Learn not only the true meaning of each word, but the sense which those words obtain when placed in such a particular situation and order. Acquaint yourself with the peculiar power and emphasis of the several modes of speech, and the various idioms of the tongue. The secondary ideas which custom has superadded to many words should also be known, as well as the particular and primary meaning of them, if we would understand any writer. See Logic, part I. cap. 4. § 3.

II. Consider the signification of those words and phrases, more especially in the same nation, or near the same age in which that writer lived, and in what sense they are used by authors of the same nation, opinion, sect, party, &c.

Upon this account we may learn to interpret several phrases of the New Testament, out of that version of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which is called the Septuagint; for though that version be very imperfect and defective in many things, yet it seems to me evident, that the holy writers of the

New Testament made use of that version many times in their citation of texts out of the Bible.

III. Compare the words and phrases in one place of an author, with the same or kindred words and phrases used in other places of the same author, which are generally called parallel places; and as one expression explains another which is like it, so sometimes a contrary expression will explain its contrary. Remember always, that a writer best interprets himself; and as we believe the Holy Spirit to be the supreme agent in the writings of the Old Testament and the New, he can best explain himself. Hence the theological rule arises, that scripture is the best interpreter of scripture; and therefore concordances, which shew us parallel places, are of excellent use for interpretation.

IV. Consider the subject of which the author is treating, and by comparing other places where he treats of the same subject, you may learn his sense in the place which you are reading, though some of the terms which he uses in those two places may be very different.

And on the other hand, if the author uses the same words where the subject of which he treats is not just the same, you cannot learn his sense by comparing those two places, though the mere words may seem to agree: for some authors, when they are treating of a quite different subject, may use perhaps the same words in a very different sense, as St. Paul does the words faith, and law, and righteousness.

V. Observe the scope and design of the writer: inquire into his aim and end in that book, or section, or paragraph, which will help to explain particular sentences: for we suppose a wise and jud cious writer directs his expressions generally toward his designed end.

VI. When an author speaks of any subject occasionally, let his sense be explained by those places

where he treats of it distinctly and professedly: where he speaks of any subject in mystical or meta phorical terms, explain them by other places where he treats of the same subject in terms that are plain and literal where he speaks in an oratorical, affecting, or persuasive way, let this be explained by other places where he treats of the same theme in a doctrinal or instructive way: where the author speaks more strictly and particularly on any theme, it will explain the more loose and general expressions where he treats more largely, it will explain the shorter hints and brief intimations; and wheresoever he writes more obscurely, search out some more perspicuous passages in the same writer, by which to determine the sense of that obscure language.

VII. Consider not only the person who is introduced speaking, but the persons to whom the speech is directed, the circumstances of time and place, the temper and spirit of the speaker, as well as the temper and spirit of the hearers: in order to interpret scripture well, there needs a good acquaintance with the Jewish customs, some knowledge of the ancient Roman and Greek times and manners, which sometimes strike a strange and surprising light upon passages which were before very obscure.

VIII. In particular propositions, the sense of an author may be sometimes known by the inferences which he draws from them; and all those senses may be excluded which will not allow of that infer

ence.

Note. This rule indeed is not always certain, in reading and interpreting human authors, because they may mistake in drawing their inferences; but in explaining scripture it is a sure rule; for the sacred and inspired writers always make just inferences from their own propositions. Yet even in them, we must take heed we do not mistake an allusion for an inference, which is many times in. troduced almost in the same manner.

IX. If it be a matter of controversy, the true sense of the author is sometimes known by the ob jections that are brought against it. So we may be well assured, the apostle speaks against our justification in the sight of God by our own works of holiness," in the 3d, 4th, and 5th chapters of the Epistle to the Romans, because of the objection brought against him in the beginning of the 6th chapter, viz. "What shall we say then? shall we continue in sin that grace may abound?" which objection could never have been raised, if he had been proving our justification by our own works of righteousness.

X. In matters of dispute, take heed of warping the sense of the writer to your own opinion, by any latent prejudices of self-love and party spirit. It is this reigning principle of prejudice and party, that has given such a variety of senses both to the sacred writers and others, which would never have come into the mind of the reader if he had not laboured under some such prepossessions.

XI. For the same reason take heed of the preju. dices of passion, malice, envy, pride, or opposition to an author, whereby you may be easily tempted to put a false and invidious sense upon his words. Lay aside therefore a carping spirit, and read even an adversary with attention and diligence, with an honest design to find out his true meaning; do not snatch at little lapses and appearances of mistake, in opposition to his declared and avowed meaning; nor impute any sense or opinion to him which he denies to be his opinion, unless it be proved by the most plain and express language.

Lastly, remember that you treat every author, writer, or speaker, just as you yourselves would be willing to be treated by others, who are searching out the meaning of what you write or speak; and maintain upon your spirit an awful sense of the presence of God, who is the judge of hearts, and will punish those who, by a base and dishonest turn

of mind, wilfully pervert the meaning of the sacred writers, or even of common authors, under the influence of culpable prejudices. See more, Logic, part I. cap. 6, § 3. "Directions concerning the definitions of names."

CHAP. IX.

Rules of Improvement by Conversation.

1. IF we would improve our minds by conversation, it is a great happiness to be acquainted with persons wiser than ourselves. It is a piece of useful advice therefore to get the favour of their conversation frequently, as far as circumstances will allow: and if they happen to be a little reserved, use all oblig. ing methods to draw out of them what may increase your own knowledge.

II. Whatsoever company you are in, waste not the time in trifle and impertinence. If you spend some hours amongst children, talk with them according to their capacity; mark the young buddings of infant reason; observe the different motions and distinct workings of the animal and the mind, as far as you can discern them; take notice by what degrees the little creature grows up for the use of his reasoning powers, and what early prejudices beset and endanger his understanding. By this means you will learn how to address yourself to children for their benefit, and perhaps you may derive some useful philosophemes or theorems for your own entertainment.

III. If you happen to be in company with a merchant or a sailor, a farmer or a mechanic, a milkmaid or a spinster, lead them into a discourse of the matters of their own peculiar province or pro