INDEX Arts-Useful and Ornamental.-Veneering, tute of Civil Engineers, 116; Decorative Art page 2, 173; on the Application of Ornament, Union, 120; Hull Literary Society, 123; Deco6; Cutlery, 23; Gilding, 52; Observations on rative Art Society, 138; Royal Academy, 141, Design, 69; Tessallated Tiles, 100; Enamel, 167, 170, 177, 186, 196, 212; Masons' Provident 113; Ornamenting Glass, 115; Bronze-Casting Institution, 153; New Gallery, 153; British in France, 126; Manufacture of White Lead, Museum, 153; British Institution, 160; Poly136; Polishing Wood, &c., 152; Buhl-Work, technic Institution, 166; Art Union, 170; In155; Framing Angles, 165: The Screw, 175; stitute of Fine Arts, 172; Royal Institution, Gold and Gold-beating, 187; Book-Finishers' 179; Polytechnic, 223; Suffolk-street Gallery, Designs, 190; Banding, 191; Art and Manu- 227. factures, 195; Silvering, 199; Paper-Hangings, 225. Lectures, &c.-What is High Art? page 4, 27; Mosaics, 18; Application of Geological Science Biography.-Dr. Birkbeck, page 218; Sir to the Choice of Building Materials, 46; BookJoshua Reynolds, 192; Raffaelle, 222. Chronotypist.-Page 235. Designs.-Park Gates, page 25; Gothic Niche, 44; Centre-Piece, 54; Corner to ditto, 64; Centre-Piece for a Frame, 74; Finger Plate for a Door, 84; Panels, 94, 114; Ironwork, 134; Buhl-Work, 154; Spandrel, 174; Chimney-Piece, 184; Monumental Tablets, 304; German Alphabet-11th Century, 214; Boss, 194; Border, 224. Drawing. Starting Points, page 14, 24; Lessons in Drawing, 34, 104, 138; Portrait of Shakspere, 89. binding, 49. Mensuration.-Page 7, 12, 25, 34, 43, 53, 76, 83, 96. Miscellanea.-Bricks, page 2; Singular Discovery, 7; Adhesion of Nails, 9; New Fuel, 10; Alabaster, 16; Warming Railway Carriages, 18: Lac, 19; New Railway Signal, 23;' Newcastle Waterworks, 24; Huskisson's Statue, 26; Is Bad Work to be Paid For? 28 American Archæology, 28; Dial Plates, 32 File-Cutting Machine, 37; Nelson Monument, 42; Improvement of Pulleys, 42; Artificial Lapis Lazuli, 43; Construction of Fire-Proof Strong-Rooms, 48; Interior Decorations at the Fine Arts. Sculpture, page 15, 68; Expres- Olympic Theatre, 48; Goodwin Sands, 49; sion, 29, 37; Architecture, 35, 45, 55, 65, 75, Free Exhibition of Modern Art, 50; Building 84, 95, 124 Remarks on Architecture, 38; in Egypt, 53; Why were early Railways CircuStreet Architecture, 50; Theory without Prac-itous? 56; Jenning's Patent Joints, 58; Mortice, 68 Simplicity, 87; Architectural Maxim, tar, 58; Couch's Stone-Embalming Liquid, 60; 127; Portrait Painting, 60; Theory of Painting, Great Iron Bridge for Russia, 62; Measuring 92, 102, 123, 142, 216, 231; Future of Art, 97; Painting in Oil, 117, 129; Light, 205; Architectural Mouldings, 198, 209, 234; General Rules for the Painter, 210; Scottish Architecture, 233. Glossary.-Page 1, 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, 81, 91, 101, 111, 121, 131, 141, 151, 161, 171, 181, 191, 201, 211, 221. Heraldry.-Ancient, page 17; Arms of the See of Manchester, 163. Institutions.--Government Schools of Design, page 17, 22, 50; Society of Arts, 28, 62, 108, 146, 212; Carpenters' Benevolent Institution, 30; Decorative Art Union, 30; Westminster Mechanics' Institution, 63; Liverpool Polytechnic Society, 98; Builders' Institution, 98; Royal Institute of Architects, 116, 215; Insti Tapes, 62; Tinkering the Angels, 64; Sawing 129; The English Navvie, 133; Architectural the Society of Arts, 149; Ellerman on SaniMuseum, 135; Our National Defences, 135; tary Reform, 206. Improvements in Springs, 137; The Westminster Palace Clock, 138; Bridge over the 9; Apparatus for Denoting ensuing Changes Scientific.-Leverage, page 8; Golden Glass, Rhine, 138; Railway Bridge over the Niagara, in the Wind, 19; Iron Girder Bridge, 20; the 140; Dip Effluvia Trap, 144; Palladium, 145; Snow Plough, 26; Improvements in PhotoSlates, &c., 147; Use of Plaster of Paris in graphy, 32; Oxide of Zine for Paint, 32; England, 148; Ancient Carvings, 153; Hair Highton's Electric Telegraph, 33; Lighting Pencils, 157; Improvements in Bell-Hang- by Electricity, 34; Progress of the Telegraph, ing, 157; Franklin's Gift, 157; Alcohol, 39; Effect of Smoke on Buildings, 40; Venti158; Iron Horse, 160; Value of Evening lation, 42; Electric Telegraph versus Time, 61; Hours, 161; Engineering Science in Ancient Ventilation of Rooms, 62; Achromatic Glasses, Egypt, 162; Nails, 163; Painted Ceiling, 163; 63; New Motive Power, 64; Amianthus New Houses of Parliament, 163; Soane's Cloth, 77; Electric Telegraph in the United Gift, 166; Ventilation of Sewers, 166; Ar- States, 77; Photography on Paper, 77, 86; tistic Curiosities, 170; Improved Easel, Progress of Science, 79; Forging and Welding, 176; White Paint, 179; French Patents, 80; Invention of Glass, 98; Experiments on 182; Black Lead, 183; Schools of Practical Cast-Iron, 105; Imitation of Foreign Woods, Mechanics, 185; Jones's Friction Hammer, 105; Discovery of an Oil Spring, 109; Central 201; Salt-Cellars, 201; Petitions Against the Heat of the Earth, 112; the Electric TelePatent Laws, 203; Flint, 206; Emery, 208; graph, 122; Photography on Glass, 130; Gutta Plugging Avoided, 208; Death of Seraphin Percha, 132; Prevention of Damp, 133; ElecVlieger, 211; Taste Pays, 220; Curious Aque- tro-Telegraphic Progress, 139; Oxide of Zinc, duct, 229; American Inventions, 232. 145; Consumption of Smoke, 151; Electric Light, 153; Mechanical Power of Coals, 156; Preservation of Paintings, 157; Iron Carriages, 160; Strength of Various Substances, 163; Tempering Steel, 170; Chloroform in ManuReceipts.-Fire and Waterproof Preparation, factures, 176; Preserving and Colouring Wood, page 3; Argentine Steel, 3; To Transfer a 176; Steam Navigation, 176; To Determine Print to Glass, 7; White Copper, 8; Varnishes, the Strength of Boilers, 180; Chalk, 182; 13, 107; To give Wood a Metallic Lustre, 13; Sound Visible, 183; Book of Eternity, Shell Gold, 13; Restoration of Old Paintings, 183; Conducting Powers of Metals to Heat, 19; Stain for New Oak, 22, 160; Plastered 183; The Peril Indicator, 185; New Motive Walls, 22; To Silver Ivory, 43; Transference Power, 185; Gutta Percha Medals, 186; Civil of Paintings, 53; To Tin Ivory, 53; Impres- Engineering, 188; Galvanisation of Metals, sions of Medallions, &c., on Copper, 56; Com- 201; Arsenites, 201; Artificial Marble, 202; position Ornaments, 63; Lamp-Black, 80; Gas, 206; Metallisation of Plaster Casts, 213; Chinese Sheet Lead, 96; To Remove Rust, 99; Oxide of Zinc, 216; Spurgin's Pen, 219; To Cast Figures in imitation of Ivory, 100; Basaltes, 191; Electric Telegraph, 193; Air Ornament for Glass or Slate, 101; Ivory Balloons, 200. Paper, 109; Glazing, 113; To Remove Varnish from Modern Paintings, 120; Rice Glue, and Foreign Galleries, page 5; Manufacture of Statistics.-Number of Pictures in English 125; Inlaying with Mother-of-Pearl, 125; Bronzing Gun Barrels, 139; To Colour Unsized Iron in Great Britain, 67; Railway Patents in Prints, 148; To Stain Wood a Mahogany France, 99; Oak Trees for Shipping, 143; Colour, 183; Casts of Leaves of Plants, 213; Speed on Railways, 170; Nail-Making in To Clean Marble, &c., 217; Tracing Papers, America, 183. Queries, Answers to Correspondents, &c.Pages 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, 220, 230. 229. &c., 219; Bleaching Ivory, 196; Bronzing, Steam-Engine.-New Gauge, page 8; New Rotary-Engine, 20, 64, 109; Lilliputian ExReviews.-Bourne on the Steam-Engine, page press, 22; Centrifugal Governor, 64; Sims's 57; Hosking on Building, 72; Transactions of Engine, 220. seems to go quite the contrary way from the. other. COUNTER-QUARTERED (in heraldry), denotes the escutcheon, after being quartered, to have each quarter again divided into two. COUNTER-SALIENT (in heraldry), is when two beasts are borne in a coat of arms leaping from each other the contrary way. COUNTER-ERMINE (in heraldry), is the contrary of ermine, being a black field with white spots. CRESCENT (in heraldry), a bearing of the form of a half-moon. In architecture it signifies a building erected in the form of an arc. Bricks. (Continued from page 191.) THE Romans had several sizes of bricks. Vitruvius mentions that they had the didoron of the Greeks, and Pliny says that those chiefly used were a foot and a half long, and a foot tions, they have in some of their buildings, broad; while, according to Alberti's observaparticularly in arch-work, bricks two feet square; besides which he mentions a kind used in pavements and borders that are about six inches by three, and an inch thick, being similar to the Dutch clinkers. Tavellæ are also mentioned by writers, and described as being seven by three and a half; they had also a sort called bipeda, which were two Roman feet in length; and Quartremere de Quincy describes three sizes that he found among their ancient buildings; the largest twenty-two inches square by twenty-one or twenty-two lines thick; the next sixteen and a half inches square, and from eighteen to twenty lines thick; and the smallest seven and a half CREST TILES (in Gothic architecture), orna-inches square by one inch and a half thick. त In addition to the quadrangular bricks here enumerated, Alberti directs attention to a right-angled triangular kind, still to be seen in the walls of Rome, more especially in the Aurelian portion, and four of which, he informs us, were made from one brick a foot square, and an inch and a half thick (corresponding in breadth to the tetradoron of the Greeks), by cutting it twice across diagonally before burning; and that the practice being to lay them mental tiles plaeed at the top of the gabled with the right-angle inwards, the work seemed, roof. CRAMP, a piece of metal forming three sides of a square, or one side and two ends of an externally, to consist of the square bricks from which they were formed; and De Quincy says that the small bricks above mentioned were halved diagonally, and used in the facing of rubble walls, the work being bonded by courses of the large square bricks at every four feet in height. These three-cornered bricks suggest the idea of building walls with a system of triangular facings and quadrangular fillings (if such is not what Alberti describes), in which the bond would be secured in the usual way by breaking the vertical joints in the face; in Palladio's time, bricks were termed quadrels, oblong, employed to fasten stones in buildings, and with regard to their sizes, he says they or the limbs of statues. VENEERING. In the time of Pliny the art of veneering was a recent invention; and he descants, in his usual antithetical way on thus converting the cheaper into the most valuable woods, by plating them with these latter; and of the ingenuity of cutting a tree into thin slices and thus selling it several times over. The woods employed for this purpose were the citrus, the terebinth, various kinds of maple, box, palm, holly, ilex, the root of elder and poplar. The middle part of a tree, he observes, shows the largest and most curling veins, while the rings and spots are chiefly found near the root. The veneers, or plates, were secured, as at present, by strong glue. may be larger or amaller according to the nature of the purpose for which they are intended. In a description in the "Archæologia," of one of the most extensive Roman villas discovered in Great Britain, there are, a hearth formed of bricks about seven inches square; a' mosaic pavement, bordered by three rows of black and red tiles, six inches square, laid chequer-wise, bounded next the wall by a row of bricks fifteen and a half by eleven inches; and piers of the præfurnium, two feet nine high, and seven inches and a half square, consisting of eighteen layers of bricks, with a larger one ten and a half square at top and bottom. Vitruvius has handed down to us his professional impressions on the subject of brick making, and which will be found not to differ materially from the principles and practice of our own period. Treating of unburned bricks, he says that sandy, stony, or gravelly loam, should not be employed, because the straw that is put in the bricks would not combine well; they would be heavy, also very liable to swell, and disunite and dissolve on being much wetted; they ought to be made either of a red, a chalky white, or a coarse-grit, sandy earth, as these are pliable and unite well, and being light, are handled with facility in building. They should not be made in summer, because when dried in the intense heat of that season, they are parched outside, and, apparently, thoroughly dried, while the heart is but imperfectly so; and if used in that condition, their subsequent shrinkage causes unsightly fractures in the incrustation or plastering, as well as serious defects in the walls themselves; they ought, therefore, to be made either in the spring or autumn, when they dry more equally; but, he adds, to insure their being sufficiently seasoned, it is best not to use them before they have been made two years; and, indeed, at Utica, the law permits none to be used within five. This writer informs us that at Pitome in Asia, Calentum in the farther Spain, and also at Marseilles in Gaul, there were bricks made of a pumicosious earth, which would swim if thrown into water, being light and porous in their texture, replete with air, and impervious to wet. Alberti states that the ancients mixed marble with the red earth of which they made their bricks; and it appears that in order they might be burned the better, they made holes in the larger sorts when moulding them. work between, such being the general appearance of the castellated buildings of that period; and it was not until three-fourths of the century had gone by that the first houses entirely constructed of brick were erected. In the Tudor times very fanciful yet pleasing forms of moulded-work were introduced pertaining to the style of architecture that arose and reigned during that period; and which, after declining for some time and being superseded by the Romano-Italian style of Inigo Jones, in the outest of the Stuart dynasty, gave way to the forms and details of a more severe and classic school. It is said to have been Sir Richard Crispe, the friend of Charles the Fifth, who conceived the mode of making bricks according to the present practice, and we may date the perfection of the system of combination called English bond to that period. In 1605, a law was passed enjoining that all buildings should thenceforth be of stone or brick, and which was enforced with a fluctuating rigor up to that memorable æra in the history of London, when an insatiable element convinced its citizens of the unquestionable expediency of such an enactment. Then the "wooden walls" disappeared, and the geological position of the Great Metropolis denying it the advantages of stone, the use of brick from that time universally obtained. About the reign of William and Mary, was imported to this country, along with other Dutch fashions, the mode of building distinguished by the name of Flemish Bond, and which soon, and indeed almost ever since, bore the bell, by reason of its plausible exterior. We are, now, however, more sensible of its counterbalancing inferiority as a bond, and what with the spreading use of compo, and the fact that the difference between it and the English bond is only discernible at a small distance from the work, together with a germinating disposition to return to the fashions of our forefathers, it is likely to drop into desuetude. On turning our attention to the introduction and progress of the art in this country, we find, as already stated, that the earliest examples are in the ancient Roman walls, in which it appears in the form of arches and bonding to rag and rubble stone-work, courses being laid through, averaging four or five in number, at intervals of about three or four feet in height. The size of these bricks is mentioned by Stowe as being 17 by 11 inches, and 1 inch thick. The Saxons and Normans Slake common stone lime in a close vessel, and FIRE AND WATERPROOF PREPARATION.both practised it (under the name of Tigel, when cool pass eight quarts through a fine whence our word Tile), and although it seems that they availed themselves largely of the sieve; add to it one quart of fine salt and two Roman bricks, yet it also appears that they manufactured them, and in their later remains, even of varied and moulded forms, as in the abbey church of St. Alban's and the Priory of St. Botolph, at Colchester. But it was not until early in the fourteenth century that they were made in England similar to the present or Flemish mode, that is, oblong in form, and thick in proportion compared to the tile-like brick of the ancients; and at that period they were of different sizes, some being 12 by 6 by 3, others 10 by 5 by 2. The name of bricks belongs to the early part of the fifteenth century, at which time their price was about 6s. per thousand; up to this time they were only used after a fashion similar to that of the Romans, combined with flint and rag stonework, in bonding tiers, piers at intervals in the solid walls, with lozenge interlacing of dark headers among the black even-dressed flint gallons of pure water. Boil and skim. Then, ARGENTINE STEEL.-Melt 500 parts of steel with one of silver and a description of steel will be produced far superior to that of the best common sort. |