:

amounted to 500l., and with this Cromp-| ton was enabled to increase his manufacturing establishment, and to set up several looms for fancy work at Bolton. In 1812 he made a survey of all the cotton-manufacturing districts in the kingdom, and ascertained that the number of spindles then at work upon his principle amounted to between four and five millions since that time the number has been doubled. The kind friends already named assisted him in making an application to parliament for some reward, and the great merit of his invention having been established before a Committee of the House of Commons, he received a grant of 5000l., which was paid to him in full without any deduction for fees or charges. This money was employed by Crompton in putting his sons into business, but they proved unsuccessful, and he was reduced to poverty, when Mr. Kennedy again interfered in his behalf, and raised a second subscription, with the produce of which a life annuity of 631. was purchased. He lived only two years to enjoy this small provision. The first mule-jennies consisted of not more than thirty spindles each, but the number has been progressively increased, and they now frequently contain more than 600 spindles each. With one of these machines, a good workman can produce in a week consisting of sixty-nine working hours, thirty-two pounds of yarn of the fineness of 200 hanks to the pound, and as each hank measures 840 yards, the produce of his week's work if extended in a line would measure 3050 miles. This work, extraordinary as it may seem, does not afford a full conception of the degree of tenuity to which cotton is capable of being reduced, one pound of raw cotton having been converted into 350 hanks, forming a continuous thread 167 miles in length. Mules have been put to work which carry each 1100 spindles. The greatest recent improvement made in the construction of this machine has been effected by Messrs. Sharp, Roberts, and Co., machinists, of Manchester. These machines, which are called self-acting mules, do not require the manual aid of a spinner, the only attendance necessary being that of children, called piecers,

who join such threads as may be accidently broken. Self-acting mules were contrived at different times by Mr. William Strutt of Derby, Mr. Kelly of Lanark, Mr. De Jongh of Warrington, and others; but none of these were brought successfully into use, owing no doubt in some measure to the inferior skill of the machine-makers as compared with the perfection which they have since attained.

The first successful attempt to weave by means of machinery was made in 1785 by Dr. Cartwright, who secured the invention by patent. In a commercial point of view Dr. Cartwright did not draw any advantage from his power-loom: but in 1809 he obtained from parliament a grant of 10,000l. as a reward for his ingenuity. Mr. Monteith, of Pollokshaws, Glasgow, who fitted up 200 power-looms in 1801, was the first person who brought them to profitable use. A great obstacle to their success was presented by the necessity for the frequent stopping of the machine in order to dress the warp. This difficulty was removed in 1804 by the invention of a machine for dressing the whole of the warp before it is placed in the loom, which was made the subject of a patent by Mr. Radcliffe, the inventor. In the use of this machine the warp in its progress to the weaving beam is passed through a dressing of hot starch; it is then compressed between rollers to free it from the superfluous quantity of starch taken up, and is afterwards, in order to dry it, drawn over a succession of cylinders heated by passing steam through them; during this last part of the operation the warp is "lightly brushed as it moves along, and is fanned by rapidly revolving fanners." The flour used for this dressing operation throughout the cotton factories of this kingdom amounts in the year to at least 650,000 bushels. The number of power-looms used in cotton factories throughout the kingdom at the end of the year 1835 was stated by the inspectors of factories in a return laid before parliament to be 109,626. The number in England was 90,679; Scotland, 17,531; Ireland 1416. In Lancashire the number of spindles was 61,176; Cheshire, 22,491; Lanarkshire, 14,069.

Each of these looms, if of good construction and attended by a skilful weaver, was capable of producing 120 yards of cloth per week, or 6240 yards in the year, at which rate the annual productive power of the whole number of looms amounted to 684 millions of yards.

Hitherto it has not been practicable to produce any but coarse or heavy goods by means of the power-loom; fine calicoes, muslins, and fancy goods are woven by the hand. The number of hand-loom weavers cannot be ascertained with the same correctness as the number of powerlooms, the latter being collected together in factories which are under the superintendence of official inspectors, while hand-loom weaving is altogether a domestic manufacture carried on in the cottages of the artisans. Computations of the number of these domestic looms have been made by different intelligent persons conversant with the trade, who have estimated them variously; the lowest at 200,000 and the highest at 250,000.

Mr. Kennedy, who is considered a good authority on this subject, supposed the value of cotton goods made in Great Bri- | tain in 1832, when the quantity of the raw material used was about 12 per cent. less than in 1833, was 24,760,000l. Mr. Baines, who has taken great pains to test the accuracy of his calculations in every possible way, has made the value amount, in 1833, to 31,338,6931. Of this value the part exported amounted to 18,459,000l., and the value of the goods remaining for home consumption would therefore be 12,879,693l. (Hist. of Cotton Manufacture, p. 412.) Following Mr. Baines's mode of calculation, Mr. Porter estimated the value of the cotton goods manufactured in 1841 at 48,641,343l.; and as the exports, including yarn, amounted to 24,668,6181., there would remain for home consumption goods to the value of 23,972,7251. The capital invested in the cotton manufacture in Great Britain is variously estimated at from 30,000,000l. to 34,000,000l.; and Mr. Baines regards the latter estimate as very moderate.

The number of persons returned under the head Cotton Manufacture in the Census Returns of 1841 is 302,376, to which should be added those returned under the

heads Hose and Lace, which are branches of the Cotton Manufacture, and also a proportionate number of those who were returned as weavers, spinners, and factory workers ('fabric not specified'), and we have then a total of nearly half a million persons engaged in this great branch of national industry, and this at a time when it was in a very depressed state.

Cotton Hose Lace

.

Persons Employed.

377,662

50,955

35,347

463,964

59,171

The ages and sex of the above number (377,662) engaged in the manufacture of cotton fabrics were as follows:Males aged 20 and upwards. 138,112 under 20 Females aged 20 and upwards. 104,470 under 30 75,909 The employment of young persons in cotton factories is regulated by statute. [FACTORIES ACT.]

The first cotton-mill built in the United States was set to work in Rhode Island in 1790, and about the same time one was erected at Beverley, Massachusetts, by an incorporated company. The manufacture made at first so little progress in the United States, that up to 1808 not more than 15 spinning-mills had been erceted. There was a great increase in 1812, occasioned by the war between England and America; again from 1820 to 1825 much capital was applied to this object; also in 1831 and 1832; and still more since the passing of the tariff of 1842, which imposed higher import duties on cotton and other manufactured goods generally.

In 1840 the number of cotton manufactories in the United States was 1240, which employed 2,284,631 spindles, and produced manufactured articles valued at 46,350,000 dollars. The capital invested was estimated at 51,000,000 dollars; and the number of persons employed, including dyers, printers, &c., was 72,119. The value of goods produced in Massachusetts in 1840 was 16,553,000 dollars; Rhode Island 7,116,000; Pennsylvania, 5,013,000; New Hampshire, 4,142,000, New York, 3,640,000; Connecticut,

COUNCIL OF THE CHURCH, an assembly of prelates who meet, being duly convoked by the legitimate authority, for the purpose of defining questions of doctrine, or making regulations or canons in matters of discipline. There are various sorts of councils:

1. General or Ecumenic councils, which are considered as a representative and legislative assembly of the whole church, and to which all bishops are summoned. In the early ages of the Christian Church the general councils were convoked by the Roman Emperor; they have been since convoked by the Popes, at least for the Western or Roman Church. The authority of general councils is considered as binding on the whole church only in matters of faith when the canon establishes a dogma which it enjoins all the faithful to believe under pain of anathema and heresy. In matters of faith the Roman Church considers a general council to be infallible: some say, however, only after its canons have been confirmed by the Pope. All bishops have a right to attend and vote in a general council; the abbots and generals of monastic orders have also been admitted to vote in most councils by consent of the council. Priests and monks have also attended the councils as theologians and advisers, with a consultative and deliberative vote. In the Western Church the Pope, or his legate for him, presides in the council. For a council to be legitimate it is required that all the bishops should be called, whether they attend or not, except those who are declared by the church to be schismatical or heretical, and all deliberations should be free and unconstrained.

2. National councils, consisting of the bishops of a whole kingdom or state, which can be convoked by the sovereign power of such state; but the authority of such council is limited to the kingdom or state for which it is convened.

3. Provincial councils are convoked by the respective metropolitans, with the consent of the sovereign power, or the king, as in England. A bishop may also convoke a diocesan council, with the consent of his superior. (Benedict XIV. de Synodo diocesana.) The Church of Rome reckons several councils, though not œcu

menic, previous to that of Nice, the earliest of which seems to be that held at Jerusalem, about A.D. 50, and which was attended by the apostles Peter, John, James, and Barnabas, and which is mentioned in the fifteenth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles.'

COUNCILLORS. [MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS.]

COUNSEL, an abbreviation of counsellor. In England a counsellor is a barrister [BARRISTER], or one who has kept twelve terms at one of the four inns of court, and has been called to the bar. After keeping his terms a man may act as a conveyancer, special pleader, or equity draftsman, without being called to the bar, but he must take out a certificate under 9 Geo. IV. c. 49. The word counsel has no plural number, and is used to denote either one or more counsel. The duty of counsel is to give advice in questions of law, and to manage causes for clients. They are styled common-law, equity, or chamber counsel, according to the nature of the business they transact. They are supposed to work for nothing, but in fact they are paid. But, according to Mr. Justice Bayley, 1 Chit. R. 351-" they are to be paid beforehand, because they are not to be left to the chance whether they shall ultimately get their fees or not, and it is for the purpose of promoting the honour and integrity of the bar that it is expected all their fees should be paid when their briefs are delivered. That is the reason why they are not permitted to maintain an action for their fees." Though it is expected that all their fees should be paid before the work is done, this is very far from being the general practice; and sometimes the payment is deferred, and sometimes it happens that it is never made. The counsel is paid by the attorney or solicitor of the person whose business he does. Counsel may be retained generally, that is, to advocate any cause in which the retaining party may be engaged, or specially with reference to a pending cause; and generally speaking, a counsel cannot refuse a retainer: there are certain rules, however, by which their practice is regulated.

Counsel in a cause may urge and arg