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The lieutenant-colonel is immediately under the full colonel. He assists the latter in directing the evolutions of the battalion or regiment, which he also commands during the absence of his superior officers.

of the men and of appointing the agent | called "the agent-general" acts for the through whom their pay is transmitted. crown colonies; but where there is a local Colonels take precedence of one another legislature the appointment is generally according to the dates of their commis- made by it. Previously to the separation sions, and not according to the seniority of the North American colonies most of of their regiments. them had a special agent in England for the management of their affairs, to whom a salary was given. They were appointed by the Assemblies, and sometimes confirmed by the governor. Sometimes, as in Massachusetts, the legislative council and the Assembly had each its own agent. The persons generally selected were distinguished lawyers or merchants, usually the former, and often members of parliament. William Knox, under-secretary of state, was agent for Georgia in 1764; John Sharpe, M.P., was agent for Massachusetts in 1755; Charles Garth, M.P., acted for South Carolina from 1765 to 1775, and his correspondence during this period contains a full account of the proceedings of the Imperial Parliament. Richard Jackson, M.P., acted for Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, about the year 1774. Edmund Burke was appointed agent, by the House of Assembly alone, for New York, December 21, 1770, with a salary of 500l. a year, and continued to act until 1775, when all intercourse with the colony was suspended. The House of Assembly of Lower Canada several times appointed special agents, the last of whom was Mr. Roebuck, M.P., who in that capacity, but not at the time an M.P., was heard at the bar of both Houses of Parliament in opposition to the Bill to suspend the constitution of Lower Canada. (Pamphlet On the Nomination of Agents formerly appointed to act in England for the Colonies of North America, 1844.)

If appointed after 31st March, 1834, the annual pay of a colonel is, in the Life and Horse Guards, 1800l. without other emolument; but in all other regiments the colonel derives emoluments from clothing. The annual pay, exclusive of these emoluments, is-in the Grenadier Guards, 12007.; in the Coldstream and Scots Fusilier Guards, 1000l.; in the cavalry regiments generally, 9001.; and in the regular infantry, 500l. The sum voted for the full pay of 135 colonels, in 1845, was 88,450. The daily pay of a lieutenantcolonel is in the Life Guards, 17. 98. 2d.; in the Foot Guards, 11. 68. 9d.; in the Royal Artillery, 1l. 7s. 1d. in the Horse Brigade, and 18s. Id. in the Foot; in the Royal Engineers, 18s. 1d. and 16s. 1d.; and in the Royal Marines and in the Infantry, 178. The full pay of 176 lieutenant-colonels was 59,1807. in 1845. The half-pay of a colonel of cavalry is 15s. 6d., and of infantry 14s. 6d. per diem. A lieutenant-colonel of cavalry receives 12s. 6d., and of infantry, 11s.; and in the Artillery and Engineers, 11s. 8d. For prices of commissions see COMMISSION.

In February, 1845, there were in the British army 374 colonels and 697 lieu

tenant-colonels.

COLONIAL AGENTS. Most of the British colonies have agents in England, whose duties do not appear to be very accurately defined. The act of 1843, appointing an agent for Jamaica, recites, "that it is necessary the inhabitants of this island should have a person in Great Britain fitly qualified and fully empowered to solicit the passing of laws and to transact other public matters committed to his care for the good of the island." In this case the salary of the agent is 1000l. per annum. A person

COLONY (in Latin Colonia, a word derived from the Latin verb 'colo,'' colere,' to till or cultivate the ground) originally signified a number of people transferred from one country or place to another, where lands were allotted to them. The people themselves were called Coloni, a word corresponding to our term colonists. The meaning of the word was extended to signify the country or place where colonists settled, and is now generally applied to any settlement

or land possessed by a sovereign state upon foreign soil. Thus Ceylon and the Mauritius are called British colonies, though they are not solely colonized by Englishmen, the former being chiefly inhabited by natives, and the second by French or descendants of French colonists and Africans. The present notion of the word "colony" (as determined by the general use of the term) seems to be a foreign country, either wholly or partly colonized, that is to say, possessed and cultivated by natives, or the descendants of natives, of another country, and standing in some sort of political connection with and subordination to the mother country. The notion of a British colony implies that the waste lands belong to the British crown. The continental possessions called British India are not a colony: the island of Ceylon is a colony.

The formation of colonies is among the oldest events recorded in history or handed down by tradition. Maritime states, such as those of Phoenicia and of Greece, which possessed only a scanty territory, would have recourse to emigration as their population increased. In both these countries the sea afforded a facility for transferring a part of their superabundant citizens, with their families and movables, and their arms, to some foreign coast, either uninhabited or thinly peopled by less civilized natives, who, by good will or by force, gave up to them a portion of their land. The emigration might be voluntary or forced; it was sometimes the result of civil contentions or foreign conquest, by which the losing party were either driven away, or preferred seeking a new country to remaining at home. The report of some remote fertile coast abounding in valuable productions would lead others to emigrate. Lastly, the state itself having discovered, by means of its merchants and mariners, some country to which they could trade with advantage, might determine upon sending out a party of settlers, and might establish a factory there for the purpose of sale or exchange. In fact, commercial enterprise seems to have led both to maritime discovery and to colonization as much as any one single cause. Such seem to have been the cause of the nu

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merous Phoenician colonies which, at a very early date, were planted along the coasts of the Mediterrannean. Tyre itself was a colony of Sidon, according to the Old Testament,' which calls it the daughter of Sidon." Leptis Magna, near the great Syrtis, was also a colony of Sidon, according to Sallust (Jugurth. c. 78). Hippo, Hadrumetum, Utica, and Tunes, were Phoenician colonies, and all of greater antiquity than Carthage, which was subsequently settled by Phoenicians in the neighbourhood of Tunes. The Phoenician colonies extended along the north coast of Africa as far as the Pillars of Hercules (the Straits), and along the opposite coast of Spain, as well as to the Balearic Islands, and Sardinia and Sicily. Those on the Spanish coast seem to have been at first small settlements or factories for the purpose of trade between the metropolis or mother country and the natives. Several of them, however, such as Gades (the site of the modern Cadiz), became independent of the mother country. The foundation of Carthage was an instance of another kind. It resulted, according to tradition, from an emigration occasioned by the tyranny of a king of Tyre.

Of the early settlements in the islands of the Ægean Sea we have only traditions referring to times previous to the war of Troy. Thucydides (i. 4) says that the Carians inhabited the Cyclades islands, and carried on piracy, until Minos, king of Crete, drove them away and planted new colonies. Thucydides does not mention the Phoenicians as occupying the Cyclades, but he speaks of the islands of the Egean generally as possessed by Carians and Phoenicians, who carried on piracy; and he adds that they settled on most of the islands (i. 8). Herodotus (ii. 44; vi. 47) also states that the Phoenicians had once a settlement in the island of Thasus, where they worked the gold- mines. They also had a settlement on the island of Cythera (Cerigo), which lay conveniently for their trade with the Peloponnesus. (Herodotus, i. 105.) Thucydides (vi. 2) mentions that the Phoenicians formed establishments on the promontories and small islands on the coast of

those of the Phoenicians: they were made through conquest, and for the purpose of keeping the country in subjection, like those of the Romans, with the remarkable exception of the colonies planted by Hanno on the west coast of Africa.

The earlier Greek colonies appear to have owed their origin to the same causes as those of the Phoenicians. Thucydides (i. 12) says, that after the Trojan war, and the subsequent conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Greece, being restored to tranquillity, began to send out colonies. The Athenians, whose country was overflowing with people from other parts of Greece, who had flocked thither for security, began to send out Ionians, as Thucydides terms the settlers in the country in Asia called after them Ionia, and to many of the islands: the Peloponnesians sent theirs to Italy, Sicily, and some parts of Greece. The Dorians from Megaris, Argos, Corinth, and other places,

Sicily, from which they traded with the native Siculi; but that when the Greeks came to settle in great numbers in that island, the Phoenicians abandoned several of their posts, and concentrated themselves at Motya, Soloeis, and Panormus, now Palermo (which must have then had another name, for Panormus, or Allport, is Greek), near the district occupied by the Elymi or Phrygian colonists (who had emigrated from Asia after the fall of Troy, and had built Entella and Egesta), trusting to the friendship of the Elymi, and also to the proximity of these ports to Carthage. These three Phonician settlements merged afterwards into Carthaginian dependencies. The Phonicians appear also to have occupied Melita or Malta, and the Lipari Islands, one of which retained the name of Phonicusa. Of the Carthaginian settlements in Sardinia we have the report of Diodorus (v. 13) and a fragment of Cicero Pro Scauro, published by Mai. (Com-colonized some of the larger islands, part pare Pausanias, x. 17; Strabo, p. 225, ed. Casaub.) Caralis (Cagliari) and Sulchi were Carthaginian settlements. A Phonician inscription was found in a vineyard at Cape Pula, belonging to the monks of the order of Mercy, and was explained | by De Rossi, Effemeridi Letterarie di Roma,' 1774. But the chief field of Phonician colonization was the north coast of Africa. There the Phænician settlements seem to have been independent, both of the mother country and of each other. | We have the instance of Utica and Tunes, which continued separate communities even after Carthage had attained great power, Carthage only exercising the hegemony, or supremacy. This seems to have been the case among the original Phoenician towns; Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, and others, each a distinct commonwealth, formed a sort of federation, at the head of which was the principal city, at first Sidon, and afterwards Tyre. A feeling of mutual regard seems to have prevailed to the last among the various Phoenician towns and colonies, including Carthage, as members of one common family.

The colonies established afterwards by the Carthaginians in the interior as well as on the coast of Africa, Sicily, and Spain, were upon a different plan from

of Creta, Rhodes, Corcyra, as well as Egina, Cos, and other islands. They founded the Hexapolis on the south-west coast of Caria, in Asia Minor, which district took from them the name of Doris. A colony of Lacedæmonians founded Cyrene. The Megarians founded Chalcedon, Byzantium, Selymbria, Heraclea, and other places on the coasts of the Euxine. Sicily also was chiefly colonized by Dorians. Syracuse was a Corinthian colony, which afterwards founded Acræ and Camarina: Gela was a colony of Rhodians and Cretans, and Agrigentum was a colony from Gela. The Megarians founded Selinus. The Chalcidians built Naxus, which was the first Greek settlement in Sicily, and afterwards took Leontini and Catana from the Siculi. For a more detailed account of the numerous Dorian colonies, see K. O. Müller's History of the Doric Race.'

The Ionians from Attica, who emigrated to the west coast of Asia Minor, which took from them its name Ionia, established there twelve cities or communities, which quickly rose to a high degree of prosperity, and formed a kind of federal union. These Ionians who settled in Asia were a mingled people, of whom the Ionians who emigrated from Athens

considered themselves the best part. They gave the name Ionia to their new settlements in Asia from the country in the Peloponnesus, once called Ionia, and subsequently Achæa, from which they had been driven by Achæans who settled there. As the Ionians consisted of twelve states in their old country, so they made twelve states in their new settlements. (Herodotus, i. 143, &c.) Four generations before the Ionian emigration, according to Strabo (p. 582, ed. Cas.), the Eolians and some Achæans, two nearly allied races, being driven away from part of the Peloponnesus by the Dorians, had emigrated to the coast of Asia Minor, where they formed colonies from Cyzicus on the Propontis as far southwards as the Hermus. Phocæa was the most northern of the Ionian towns, and it was on the borders of Æolis. The Æolians also colonized the islands of Lesbos, Tenedos, and others in that part of the Ægean. These emigrations were posterior to the time of Homer, who mentions other people as occupying that coast. The Athenians at a later date colonized Euboa, where they founded Chalcis and Eretria; and they also sent colonies to Naxos, to the islands of Ceos, Siphnos, Seriphos, and other islands of the Egean. Many of these colonies, having thriven and increased, became colonizers in their turn. The enterprising mariners of Phocæa formed various colonies, the most celebrated of which is Massilia (Marseille), on the south coast of Gaul. Miletus, also one of the Ionian cities, was the parent of numerous colonies, many of which were on the south coast of the Black Sea. The Chalcidians of Euboea founded Cuma, on the west coast of Italy, in the country of the Opici. Pirates from Cuma founded Zancle in Sicily, on the Straits of Messina; but a fresh colony of Samians and some Milesians escaping from the Persian invasion, in the time of the first Darius, B.C. 494, took Zancle, and were afterwards in their turn dispossessed by Anaxilas, tyrant of Rhegium, who called the town Messene (now Messina), from the name of his original country in the Peloponnesus. The Eolians founded Dicæarchia, afterwards Puteoli, in Italy, and they, with the Cu

| mæans, are supposed to have founded Parthenope (Naples).

The Greek colonies on the east coast of Italy, setting aside the confused traditions of Arcadian and other immigrations, consisted chiefly of Dorians and Achæans from the Peloponnesus. Croton, Sybaris, and Pandosia were Achæan colonies. Tarentum was a colony of Lacedæmonians, and Locri Epizephyrii of the Locrians. Greek colonies were settled both on the north and east sides of the Pontus (Black Sea), and also on the north coast and in the modern Crimea. Many of them, as already observed, were Milesian colonies.

The relation which subsisted between the Greek colonists and the prior inhabitants of the countries which they occupied, was undoubtedly in most cases that of conquerors and subjects. Either the natives withdrew into the interior and left the ground to the new occupants, as the Siculi did in several instances, or they resisted, in which case, when overpowered, the men were exterminated or reduced to slavery, and the conquerors kept the women for themselves. In some instances the older inhabitants were reduced to the condition of serfs or bondmen to the new settlers. The records of authentic history do not present us with an instance of any colony being settled in a country where there were not previous inhabitants. The consequence of the immigration of a new race, who seek to possess themselves of the land, must be the extermination or gradual decay of the prior race, unless the old inhabitants are made slaves. So far as we trace the history of Greek colonies in the scattered fragments of antiquity, such were the consequences of their colonial settlements. On the coast of Italy it would appear that the Greeks pursued a more humane or more politic course. They are said to have allied themselves to and intermarried with the natives, and by their superior civilization to have acquired great influence. It may here be remarked that the Greeks, so far from being averse to foreign intermixture, as some have said, mingled their blood freely with that of all the nations with whom they came into contact, and thus the civilization of the

arts.

Hellenic stock was gradually introduced | tomary honours and deference in the pubamong nations less advanced in the useful lic solemnities and sacrifices, as the other colonies were wont to pay to the mother country." They accordingly took offence at the Corinthians accepting the surrender of Epidamnus, and the result was a war between Corcyra and Corinth.

The relations between these Greek colonies and the mother country, and between those colonies that were of a kindred race, may be gathered pretty clearly from Thucydides (i. 24, &c.). Again, the Corcyræan deputies, who Epidamnus was a colony of Corcyra: were sent to seek the alliance of the but the leader of the colony (oikiσThs), | Athenians against Corinth, stated in anthe founder of the colony, or the person swer to the objection that they were a under whose conduct it was settled, was colony of Corinth, that "a colony ought a Corinthian, who was called or invited, to respect the mother country as long as says Thucydides, from the mother city the latter deals justly and kindly by it, (called by the Greeks the metropolis, but if the colony be injured and wrongly Tрóπolis, or parent state), according used by the mother country, then the tie to an ancient usage. Thus it appears is broken, and they become alienated from that if a colony wished to send out a each other, because, said the Corcyræans, new colony, this was properly done with colonists are not sent out as subjects, but the sanction of the mother country. Some as free men to have equal rights with Corinthians and other Dorians joined in those who remain at home." (i. 34.) This the settlement of Epidamnus, which be- shows the kind of relation as understood came a thriving community, and inde- by the Greeks between the metropolis and pendent both of Corcyra and Corinth. In its colonies. The colonies were in fact the course of time, however, civil dissen- sovereign states, attached to the mother sions and attacks from the neighbouring country by ties of sympathy and common barbarians induced the Epidamnians to descent, so long as those feelings were apply to Corcyra, as to their metropolis, fostered by mutual good-will, but no furfor assistance, but their prayers were not ther. The Athenians, it is true, in the attended to. Being hard pressed by the height of their power, exacted money enemy, they turned themselves to the from their own colonies as well as from Corinthians, and gave up their town to the colonies of other people, and punished them, as being the real founders of the severely those who swerved from their colony, in order to save themselves from alliance, such as Naxos; but this was not destruction. The Corinthians accepted in consequence of any original dominion the surrender, and sent a fresh colony to as supposed to belong to the mother counEpidamnus, giving notice that all the try over the colony. Many of the colonew settlers should be on an equal foot-nies, especially the earlier ones, which ing with the old settlers: those who did were the consequence of civil war or not choose to leave home were allowed to foreign invasion, were formed by large have an equal interest in the colony with parties of men under some bold leader, those who went out, by paying down a without any formal consent being asked sum of money, which appears to have from the rest of the community: they been the price of allotments of land. took their families, their arms, and their Those who went out gave their services; moveables with them, to conquer a new those who stayed at home gave their country for themselves; they left their money. "Those who went out," says native soil for ever, and carried with Thucydides, "were many, and those who them no political obligations. Those that paid down their money were also many." went off in more peaceful times, by a For the moneyed people it was in fact an common understanding of the whole comaffair of pure speculation. The Corcy-monwealth, went also away for ever, and ræans, themselves originally a colony freely and voluntarily, though under a from Corinth, having become very power-leader appointed by the parent state, to ful by sea, slighted their metropolis, and seek a country where they could find an "did not pay to the Corinthians the cus- easier subsistence than at home.

In

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