for observing the laws throughout Eng- | land, was in the nature of a public law. It settled the religion of the state and provided for its peace and government, for the administration of justice, the punishment of criminals, and the regulation of markets; it confirmed the titles to lands, and the exemption of the tenants in chief of the crown from all unjust exaction and from tallage. The words are those of a lawgiver appointing and commanding; "statuimus," "volumus et firmiter precipimus," interdicimus," "decretum est," are the forms of expression by which matters are ordered or prohibited. (Fodera Rec. Comm. Ed., vol. i. p. 1.)

tice, contrary to the ancient and fundamental laws of the realm, which was abolished by the act 21 James I. c. 3. [MONOPOLY.]

as well as other public companies which have been incorporated in the first instance by statute.

no less than 180 members were added to the House of Commons by royal charter, the last borough upon which that right was conferred, in this manner, having been Newark, in 1673. Several of these The crown has ever exercised, and still were ancient boroughs which had ceased retains, the prerogative of incorporating to send members, and whose rights were universities, colleges, companies, and other thus restored by charter; while some public bodies, and of granting them, by towns, expressly created boroughs by charter, powers and privileges not inconcharter, did not send members to parlia- sistent with the law of the land. But as ment for centuries afterwards, as Queen- the most considerable bodies ordinarily borough, for example, to which a charter require powers which no authority but was granted in 1368, but which did not that of parliament is able to confer, such return members until 1578. Hence it corporations as the East India Company has been argued that, notwithstanding and the Bank of England, which were the practice of later reigns, the charter of originally established by royal charter, the crown alone was not sufficient in law have long since derived their extraordito entitle a town to send members to par-nary privileges from acts of parliament, liament, although expressly created a borough, to which, by the common law, the right of sending members was incident. (Merewether and Stephen's History of Boroughs and Municipal Corporations, Introduction, and pp. 664, 1256, 1774, &c.) This view derives confirmation from the acknowledged law that the crown was unable, by charter, to exempt a borough from returning members, since that right was always held to be exercised for the benefit of the whole realm, and not for the advantage of the particular place. (Coke, 4th Inst. 49.) Upon these grounds a charter of exemption to the citizens of York was declared void by act of parliament, 29 Henry VI. c. 3. But as parliamentary representation has, at length, been comprehensively arranged for the whole kingdom by the Reform Acts, the legal effect of royal charters upon the elective franchise has become a question merely of historical interest. The peculiar rights of corporations have also been determined by the Municipal Corporations Act; but a power has been reserved to the crown, with the advice of the Privy Council, to grant charters of incorporation to other towns, upon the petition of the inhabitants, and to extend to them the provisions of the Municipal Corporations Acts (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76, § 141). [MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS.]

But the largest powers now conferred by royal charter are those connected with the colonies and foreign possessions of the crown. Whenever a new country is obtained by conquest or treaty, the crown possesses an exclusive prerogative power over it, and by royal charters may establish its laws and the form of its government; may erect courts of justice, of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and otherwise provide for its municipal order, for the raising its revenue, and the regulation of its commerce. (Chitty, On Prerogatives, c. iii.) This sovereign power, however, is always subject to the ultimate control of parliament; and even if deputed to a legislative assembly, or other local government, possessing rights and liberties defined by charter, the crown cannot recall the charter, and govern by any laws inconsistent with its provisions, or at variance with the common law.

II. Charters of private persons are the title-deeds of lands, many of which are the ancient grants of feudal lords to their tenants. These pass with the land as incident thereto, and belong to him who has the inheritance; or, if the land be conveyed to another and his heirs, the charters belong to the feoffee. A charter Charters were formerly granted by the of the crown, granted at the suit of the crown, establishing monopolies in the grantee, is construed most beneficially for buying, selling, making, working, or the crown, and against the party; but a using certain things; an injurious prac-private charter is construed most strongly

against the grantor. (Fleta, lib. iii. c. 14; Comyn's Digest, tit. Charters; Coke, 1st Inst. 6 a, 7 a, 2nd Inst. 77; Cowel, Law Dictionary; Blackstone and Stephen's Commentaries; Preface to Statutes of the Realm, &c.)

CHARTER PARTY. [SHIPS.]

all the districts; and that electors vote only for the representative of the district in which they are registered. V. That no other qualification be required for members than the choice of the electors. VI. That every member be paid 500l. a year out of the public treasury for his legislative services; and that a register be kept of the daily attendance of each member.

There is nothing new in the principles or details of the People's Charter. They have, either separately, or some one or other of them in conjunction, been a prominent subject of discussion at various intervals within the last seventy years. In 1780 the Duke of Richmond introduced a bill into the House of Lords for annual parliaments and universal suffrage. In the same year the electors of Westminster appointed a committee to take into consideration the election of mem

their report they recommended the identical points which now constitute the main features of what is called the People's Charter. The Society of the Friends of the People, established in 1792, three years afterwards published a declaration which recommended a very large extension of the suffrage. In seasons of national distress, the amendment of the representative system has always been warmly taken up by the people of this country.

CHARTISTS, the name given to a political party in this country, who propose extensive alterations in the representative system, as the most direct means of attaining social improvement, and whose views are developed in a document called the "People's Charter." The principal points of this proposed charter are, universal suffrage, vote by ballot, annual parliaments, the division of the country into equal electoral districts, the abolition of property qualification in members and paying them for their services. The principles of the charter and the means of carrying them into effect have also been embodied in the form of a bill. It was pre-bers of the House of Commons, and in pared in 1838 by six members of the House of Commons, and six members of the London Working Men's Association; and the following are the most important of its enactments:-I. The preparers of the Bill allege the low state of public feeling as an apology for not admitting women to the franchise, and it is therefore only provided that every male inhabitant be entitled to vote for the election of a member of the Commons' House of Parliament, subject however to the following conditions:-1. That he be a In 1831 the wishes of a large mass of native of these realms, or a foreigner who the middle classes were realized and has lived in this country upwards of two satisfied by the passing of the Reform years, and been naturalized. 2. That he Act. A season of political repose, and, as be twenty-one years of age. 3. That he it happened also, of commercial prosbe not proved insane when the lists of perity, followed the excitement which voters are revised. 4. That he be not preceded the passing of that measure. convicted of felony within six months A victory had been gained, and the peofrom and after the passing of this act.ple waited for the benefits which they 5. That his electoral rights be not suspended for bribery at elections, or for personation, or for forgery of election certificates, according to the penalties of this act. II. That the United Kingdom be divided into 300 electoral districts, so as to give uniform constituencies of about 20,000 voters each. III. That the votes be taken by ballot. IV. That a new Parliament be elected annually; that the elections take place on the same day in

were to derive from it. In the next period of distress which arose, the amended state of the representative system and the advantages which it had brought were narrowly scanned; and the consequence was, the gradual formation of a party who were dissatisfied with its arrangements, and sought to attain the ends of political and social good by a more extensive change. This is briefly the origin of Chartism and of the Peo

cheque, which is signed by the drawer. Cheques are immediately payable on presentment. They are not liable to stamp-duty, and are therefore limited in their functions in order to prevent their circulating as bills of exchange. They must, for example, be payable on demand, without any days of grace, and must be drawn on a banker within fifteen miles of the place where they are issued. The place of issue must therefore be named, and they must bear date on the day of issue. A cheque should be presented on the day which it is received, or within a reasonable time. One of the first rules to be observed in writing a cheque is to draw it in a business-like manner, so as to prevent a fraudulent alteration in the amount, for if otherwise the drawer may be liable. A "crossed" cheque is an ordinary cheque with the name of a particular banker written across the face of it for security, or it may be crossed simply "& Co."; and in this case it will only be paid through that banker. If presented by any other person, it is not paid without further inquiry. The Bankers' Magazine' for Oct. and Nov. 1844, and Jan. and Feb. 1845, contains some valuable information on the Law of Cheques.

comprehended under the general term "Personal Property." The law as to chattels is now, owing to the great increase of wealth, and particularly of moveables, of equal importance with the law relating to land; but under the strict feudal system, and the laws to which it more immediately gave rise, chattels (including even terms for years) were considered of small importance in a legal point of view, and, indeed, prior to the reign of Henry VI., were rarely mentioned in the law treatises and reports of the day. (Reeve, Hist. Eng. Law, 369.) Many articles which are properly chattels, owing to their intimate connexion with other property of a freehold nature, and being necessary to its enjoyment, descend therewith to the heir, and are not treated as chattels. Thus, for instance, the muniments of title to an estate of inheritance, growing trees and grass, deer in a park, and such fixtures as cannot be removed from the freehold without injury to it, are not chattels, because they pass to the heir. In the hands of a person however who has a limited interest in such things they become his chattels, and pass to his executor. Chattels, except so far as they may be heir-looms, cannot be entailed, though they may be limited so as to vest One of the great advantages of a bankwithin twenty-one years after the deathing account is the convenience of drawof a person or persons in being. They are not within the Statute of Uses, inasmuch as the proprietor of a chattel is said to be possessed of it, not seised, which is the word used in that statute. The same forms were not required in passing a chattel by devise, as in the case of real property, and a will of chattels might also be made at an earlier age than one which disposed of real estate; at fourteen years of age by a male, and twelve by a female. But this is now altered by 1 Vict. c. 26, and no person under twentyone years of age can now dispose of any thing by will. Chattels do not go in succession to a corporation sole, except only in the cases of the king and the chamberlain of the city of London. (Co. Litt.; Blackstone, Comm.)

CHEQUE, an order on a banker by a person who has money in the bank, directing him to pay a certain sum of money to the bearer or to a person named in the

ing cheques. A person is thus relieved of the necessity of keeping ready money in his hands, and a cheque is some evidence of payment in the absence of a proper receipt. The Bank of England allows cheques to be drawn for sums of 51., but a few years ago it allowed no cheques under 107.

CHICORY. [ADULTERATION.] CHIEF JUSTICE. [COURTS.] CHILD-KILLING. [INFANTICIDE.] CHILD-STEALING. [ABDUCTION.] CHILTERN HUNDREDS. A portion of the high land of Buckinghamshire is known by the name of the Chiltern Hills. "Formerly these hills abounded in timber, especially heech, and afforded shelter to numerous banditti. To put these down, and to protect the inhabitants of the neighbouring parts from their depredatious, an officer was appointed under the crown, called the steward of the Chiltern Hundreds." (Geog. of Great Britain,