words: "I had no medical companionship, the profession stood aloof, and society was distrustful of the innovation. Insolent letters occasionally came by post, and my pecuniary position was a source of constant anxiety."

In 1854, Emily Blackwell, a sister of Elizabeth, graduated from the Medical College of Cleveland, and continued her studies in Paris. Maria E. Zackrewska, a young German woman, who had begun her studies in her own country by the advice of a prominent university professor, came to America to find opportunity to complete them. This she did at the Cleveland College. These three women established a hospital in New York in 1857. The attempt met with much opposition, and the promoters were assured

that no one would let a house for the purpose; that "female doctors" would be looked upon with suspicion; that the police would interfere; that if deaths occurred their death certificates would not be recognised; that it would be resorted to by classes and persons whom it would be an insult to be called upon to deal with; that without men as resident physicians they would not be able to control the patients; that if any accident occurred, not only the medical profession, but the public, would blame the trustees for supporting such an undertaking; and, finally, that they would never be able to collect money enough for so unpopular an effort.

No obstacle had been so serious as the one which now faced these three courageous women. Unfortunately, although women had been excluded from medical schools, there had been occasional women who took the title of "doctress" for the purpose of a criminal but profitable practice. Not only had the first women physicians to battle against the prejudices of society, but they were forced to contend against the suspicion that the woman practitioner was a disguised criminal. Perhaps nothing could more clearly demonstrate the effect of this belief

than an incident related by Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell. She had called upon Fanny Kemble, who was giving a series of Shakespearian readings in New York, often in aid of struggling institutions. The actress listened courteously until she heard that the physicians of the institution seeking her support were women, when "she sprang up to her full height, turned her flashing eyes upon us, and with the deepest tragic tones of her magnificent voice, exclaimed: Trust a woman—as a doctor! never! The difficulty, however, was overcome, and the Infirmary for Women and Children was established, where thorough training for female nurses was given.

Various female medical colleges opened meantime, and a number of women availed themselves of the opportunities thus offered. Among these were colleges in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, each sanctioned by the Legislatures of their respective States. These colleges, however, owing to public opposition and a meagre attendance, did not reach the high standard maintained by the best colleges for men. Many women graduating from them were forced to go to Paris, London, or Switzerland for the opportunities of advanced study which were denied by American colleges. The difficulties which hindered the practice of those early women physicians almost passes belief. In Philadelphia, in 1850, Dr. Hannah Longshore opened an office, only to find that the men physicians were in league against her and that, at their request, the druggists of the city refused to sell drugs to her, hoping by such action to drive her from the city. In many States women were denied admission to medical societies, and many physicians refused to consult with them.

In 1861, the study of surgery and dentistry was opened to women in Sweden, and in 1863 the University of Zurich opened all its departments, including medicine, to women. In 1865, Miss Elizabeth Garrett received the

first medical diploma granted to a woman in England. In 1869, women were admitted to the academic departments of the University of Michigan. It was twenty years since the first woman had graduated in medicine, and a significant change in public sentiment had followed, yet when a leading professor in the School of Medicine at Ann Arbor was asked if women were admitted to the medical department also, he gave back the vulgar but suggestive reply: "No, thank God! they can only enter there in the pickling vat.' Yet a few years later they were admitted to the medical department.

For many years medical practice of a desirable kind was difficult for women physicians to secure. Patients came at first chiefly from the poor. Women who should, according to theory, have been the best patrons of their pioneer sisters, were influenced by popular opinion and offered neither support nor encouragement. The prejudice which was overwhelming in 1840, has not been entirely eliminated; yet at the close of the century women are admitted to the medical societies of the United States and England, are accepted in consultation with men physicians, and the practice of many of them is large, successful, and lucrative, At the close of the century there are in the United States and Canada forty-nine medical colleges admitting women, nine being separate women's schools. Seven hundred graduated women physicians are reported as practising in Russia, several hundred are practising in the British Empire and colonies; there are women physicians in all countries of Europe, in China, Japan, Persia, India, and Egypt; and it is estimated that some ten thousand graduated women physicians are practising in the United States.

In 1850, Antoinette Brown was graduated from Oberlin, and immediately made application to enter the theological department. The President did his utmost to dissuade her, but failing in this he was forced to admit her,

owing to the exceedingly liberal character of the college charter. She pursued the entire course, and, despite the fact that faculty and trustees continued their disapproval of her presence there, was graduated with honour in 1853. However, to guard against further applicants the Oberlin charter was so amended as to prevent other women from entering the theological school, and her name was not printed in the list of graduates until forty years after her graduation. Miss Brown was, shortly after her graduation, ordained by a Congregational church in New Jersey: At about the same date, the Universalist Church ordained the Rev. Olympia Brown. Some denominations did not require a diploma from a theological school as a qualification, and on that account offered easier means of entrance than others; but this advantage, open to men, offered no encouragement to women, since it was offset by the overpowering belief that the ministry of women was contrary to God's Word. There are now some eighteen denominations, including Friends and the Salvation Army (which do not require ordination), that permit women to preach. Several hundred women are occupying regular pulpits. Those churches whose government is determined by large representative bodies, such as the Methodist Episcopal Conference and the Presbyterian Assembly, have never granted ordination to women. The denominations in which ordination may be secured at the request of a single congregation are those in which women ministers are most numerous. The socalled liberal denominations-Unitarian and Universalist - have ordained the largest number of women in proportion to their total membership. Among the churches which have ordained women are the Unitarian, Universalist, Congregational, Baptist, Free Baptist, Methodist Protestant, Free Methodist, Christian, and United Brethren.

The law was the last profession to admit women, and

it will doubtless be the last to concede fair opportunity. Yet the opposition is disappearing, the number of women lawyers is increasing, and sooner or later the law, too, will unquestionably offer equal chances to women. Permission to practise law in nearly all countries can be obtained only by decree of a court. In several States, courts threw off the responsibility of passing upon the application of women candidates by the decision that a special Act of the Legislature must first be secured, making women eligible to the profession of law. In 1869, Belle Mansfield was admitted to the bar in Iowa; that same year, Myra Bradwell made application for admission to the bar in Illinois, and was refused. She appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, which decided that each State must determine the question for itself. eral women are now practising law in Illinois, and many States have admitted them to practice; but in each State a special effort had to be made to secure the right for the first candidate. Western States presented little difficulty, but Eastern States withheld the privilege longer. Several hundred women have since been graduated from law schools, and many are engaged in honourable and lucrative practice. Women have been graduated in law in several foreign countries, but although efforts to secure admission to the bar have been made in Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, and Russia, they have thus far been in vain.

Sev

Although woman in the "learned professions" still has difficulties to overcome in addition to those which confront man, it is evident that these are growing fewer every year. Basing one's judgment upon the rapidity. with which conditions have changed in the last fifty years, a prophecy may be ventured with safety that in a few years the professional woman and professional man will stand before the world with equal chances of success or failure. The constantly increasing demand of women