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WOMEN IN THE INDUSTRIES AND

PROFESSIONS

BY CAROLINE C. CATT

T the opening of the nineteenth century the position of women, as prescribed by law and custom of the civilised world, was that of complete tutelage to fathers, husbands, and sons. The rehearsal of the laws of the period conveys but slight information concerning the limitations imposed upon women, for the unwritten laws of public opinon were often quite as binding; yet clearly to comprehend the significance of the changes in the position of women which have been wrought in the nineteenth century it is necessary to understand the point of departure.

In 1800, the spinster over age and the widow were free by law to collect their own wages and to control their own property, but popular opinion restricted this right. The nearest male relative usually managed the property of such women, and the custom was so thoroughly established that few women dared to become the exception to it. The opinion was likewise widespread and emphatic that no man of pride and resources would permit his womenfolk to labour for money, and the natural corollary of that opinion was another that the woman who laboured for wages was to be pitied as an unfortunate or disapproved as an eccentric. In consequence, many women whose freedom from family cares and natural instincts urged them to enter the field of labour ate the bread of dependence rather than face the condemnation

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of society. The fact that food and clothing were almost wholly prepared within the home rendered this condition possible and bearable, since such useful and necessary employment was furnished that the dependent relative could more than pay for her keeping by the value of the services she rendered. Women driven by necessity into the world's workshop found few occupations open to their hands, and these so poorly compensated as to offer little more than a bare subsistence. The paid work of women outside was necessarily pitted against the unpaid work of women within the home; while the unrecognised commercial value of both tended to strengthen the opinion generally adopted that women's work was always of an inferior quality.

When Harriet Martineau visited the United States in 1840, she reported having found only seven occupations open to women,-teaching, needlework, keeping boarders, working in cotton factories, typesetting, bookbinding, and household service. Of these employments, teaching indicated the highest mental acquirements, but at that date women teachers were confined almost entirely to the primary departments of city schools and to summer terms in country districts. The lack of opportunities for higher education prevented their fitness for the highest positions, and the popular idea of their general incompetency prevented the full recognition of the qualifications they did possess. A dollar a week with "boarding around was accounted good wages for a woman teacher.

The economic development of the country was the unconscious influence which brought better industrial conditions to women. The establishment of factories gradually removed the manufacture of cloth and clothing from the home. The necessary purchase of these necessities demanded a greater cash income for the family. The man who had supported a family of women when it required but small outlay of money, found himself unable

to do so when every comfort demanded a cash investment. The necessities of poverty drove women into the wageearning occupations, while the changed economic conditions gradually lifted the ban placed upon the woman worker. Meanwhile, the prejudice against education for women was being slowly eradicated, and better opportunities were offered for their intellectual development. With higher qualifications, there came the demand for better-paid employments, and the gradual opening of new occupations followed.

The real contest centred about the three learned professions, since the opposition there combined the prejudice against the woman worker, the prejudice against financial independence for women, and the scepticism concerning woman's intellectual ability. This portion of the history of the industrial evolution of women offers the truest measure of changed conditions. In the early years of the century the higher vocations were entirely beyond the reach of women. Three distinct and overpowering obstacles stood in the way:

(1) The belief, practically universal, that the minds of women were wholly incapable of mastering a college education, and still less the training required by a learned profession; and that their physical strength was insufficient to endure the strain of so long a period of close study. (Oberlin College was opened in 1833, but no women were graduated until 1841.)

(2) The belief, quite as universal, that if a woman should receive the necessary professional training, no patrons would reward her, and her preparation, in consequence, would represent a loss of time and money.

(3) The popular belief that any woman who would seek to enter a profession must of necessity be masculine, "unsexed," indelicate, and unworthy of public

esteem.

The first profession opened to women was medicine.

The first graduated woman physician was Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell. She was born in England, but had removed at an early age with her family to America. She was a woman of clear intellect, austere character, and resolute courage. She was poor, and no friend stood ready to supply the necessary funds to secure the required training. Nothing daunted, she began teaching, and by dint of constant energy and close economy for a period of years she saved a sum accounted sufficient for a beginning. Meanwhile, she had sought advice and counsel of many physicians. Many condemned her ambition as unsuitable and unwomanly, a few wished her well, but none had definite counsel to offer. Arrangements were finally made whereby she might study in the office of a physician. Afterwards she made application for admission to different medical schools, but the invariable answer was a peremptory refusal. A professor of surgery in the largest college in Philadelphia, who was favourable to Miss Blackwell's enterprise, offered to admit her to his classes if she would disguise herself in the attire of a man. Still another friend advised her to don male attire and go to Paris for study; but neither proposition tempted her. In her own words: "It was, to my mind, a moral crusade on which I had entered, a course of justice and common sense, and it must be pursued in the light of day, and with public sanction, in order to accomplish its end."

Among the colleges to which she sought admission was one at Geneva, N. Y. The faculty passed upon her request and concluded not to admit her, but, wishing to escape the full responsibility of a refusal, decided to leave the matter in the hands of the class, with the understanding that, if a single student objected, she should be excluded. In the words of a member of the class and an eye-witness,

Contrary to all expectations, the whole affair assumed the

most ludicrous aspect to the class, and the announcement was received with the most uproarious demonstrations of favour. A meeting was called for the evening, and every member attended. The resolution approving the admission of the lady was sustained by a number of extravagant speeches which were enthusiastically cheered. The vote was finally taken with what seemed to be one unanimous yell, "Yea!" When the negative vote was called, a single voice was heard uttering a timid "No!" The scene that followed passes description. A general rush was made for the corner of the room which emitted the voice, and the recalcitrant member was only too glad to acknowledge his error, and record his vote in the affirmative.

The faculty received the decision of the class with evident disfavour, but were compelled to return an answer admitting the applicant. It appeared later that some of the students considered the application a hoax perpetrated by a rival institution.

However, when Miss Blackwell appeared, her fellowstudents conducted themselves with entire decorum and respect. She entered in 1847 and graduated in January, 1849. The President of the college pronounced her the leader of her class, and stated that she had passed through a thorough course in every department. Her graduation made a profound impression upon the public. The press received the news of a woman graduate in medicine with varying comments. Many writers displayed their bitter disapproval, a few gave words of cheer, but the majority treated it as a joke. After graduation, she pursued additional studies abroad. In 1850, after repeated endeavours to gain admission to St. Bartholomew's Hospital, she was admitted with the information that every department would be open to her "except the department for female diseases." Dr. Blackwell returned to America and began to practise in New York in 1851. She reports the first seven years as difficult and discouraging. In her own.