an inferior minister of providence, he cheers, invi gorates, and fuftains the furrounding world. If confined to private life, the sphere of his activity is narrower; but his influence is all benign and gentle. If exalted into a higher ftation, mankind and pofterity reap the fruit of his labours. As thefe topics of praise never fail to be employed, and with fuccefs, where we would inspire esteem for any one; may it not thence be concluded, that the UTILITY, refulting from the focial virtues, forms, at least, a part of their merit, and is one fource of that approbation and regard fo univerfally paid to them? When we recommend even an animal or a plant as ufeful and beneficial, we give it an applaufe and recommendation fuited to its nature. As, on the other hand, reflection on the baneful influence of any of these inferior beings always infpires us with the fentiment of averfion. The eye is pleased with the profpect of corn-fields and loaded vineyards; horfes grazing, and flocks pafturing: But flies the view of briar and brambles, affording shelter to wolves and ferpents. A machine, a piece of furniture, a veftment, a house well contrived for use and conveniency, is fo far beautiful, and is contemplated with pleasure and approbation. An experienced eye is here fenfible to many excellencies, which escape perfons ignorant and uninftructed. Can any thing stronger be faid in praise of a profeffion, fuch as merchandize or manufacture, than to obferve the advantages which it procures to fociety? And is not a monk and inquifitor enraged when we treat his order as ufelefs or pernicious to mankind? The hiftorian exults in difplaying the benefit arifing from his labours. The writer of romance al leviates leviates or denies the bad confequences afcribed to his manner of compofition. In general, what praise is implied in the fimple epithet useful! What reproach in the contrary! Your Gods, fays CICERO*, in oppofition to the EPICUREANS, cannot justly claim any worship ar adoration, with whatever imaginary perfections you may suppose them endowed. They are totally ufelefs and unactive. Even the EGYPTIANS, whom you fo much ridicule, never confecrated any animal but on account of its utility. The sceptics affert †, though abfurdly, that the origin of all religious worship was derived from the utility of inanimate objects, as the fun and moon, to the fupport and well-being of mankind. This is alfo the common reafon affigned by hiftorians for the deification of eminent heroes and legiflators . To plant a tree, to cultivate a field, to beget children; meritorious acts, according to the religion of ZOROASTER. In all determinations of morality, this circumftance of public utility is ever principally in view; and wherever difputes arife, either in philofophy or common life, concerning the bounds of duty, the queftion cannot, by any means, be decided with greater certainty, than by afcertaining, on any fide, the true interefts of mankind. If any false opinion, embraced from appearances, has been found to prevail; as foon as farther experience and founder reafoning have given us jufter notions of human affairs, we retract our firft fentiment, and adjust anew the boundaries of moral good and evil. Giving alms to common beggars is naturally praifed; because it seems to carry relief to the diftreffed and indigent But when we obferve the encouragement thence arifing to idleness and debauchery, we re *De Nat. Deor. lib. i. O 3 +SEXT. EMP, adversus Math, lib. viii. DIOD. SIC. paffim. gard gard that species of charity rather as a weakness than a virtue. Tyrannicide, or the affaffination of ufurpers and oppreffive princes, was highly extolled in ancient times; because it both freed mankind from many of these monsters, and feemed to keep the others in awe, whom the fword or poinard could not reach. But hiftory and experience having fince convinced us, that this practice encreases the jealoufy and cruelty of princes, a TIMOLEON and a BRUTUS, though treated with indulgence on account of the prejudices of their times, are now confidered as very improper models for imitation. Liberality in princes is regarded as a mark of beneficence: But when it occurs, that the homely bread of the honeft and induftrious is often thereby converted into delicious cates for the idle and the prodigal, we foon retract our heedlefs praises. The regrets of a prince, for having loft a day, were noble and generous: But had he intended to have spent it in acts of generofity to his greedy courtiers, it was better loft than mifemployed after that manner. Luxury, or a refinement on the pleafures and conveniences of life, had long been fuppofed the fource of every corruption in government, and the immediate cause of faction, fedition, civil wars, and the total lofs of liberty. It was, therefore, univerfally regarded as a vice, and was an object of declamation to all fatirifts and fevere moralifts. Those who prove, or attempt to prove, that fuch refinements rather tend to the increase of induftry, civility, and arts, regulate anew our moral as well as political fentiments, and reprefent, as laudable or innocent, what had formerly been regarded as pernicious and blameable. Upon the whole, then, it seems undeniable, that nothing can beftow more merit on any human creature than the fentiment of benevolence in an eminent degree; and that a part, at least, of its merit arifes from from its tendency to promote the interefts of our fpecies, and bestow happiness on human fociety. We carry our view into the falutary confequences of such a character and disposition; and whatever has fo benign an influence, and forwards so desirable an end, is beheld with complacency and pleasure. The focial virtues are never regarded without their beneficial tendencies, nor viewed as barren and unfruitful. The happiness of mankind, the order of fociety, the harmony of families, the mutual fupport of friends, are always confidered as the refult of their gentle dominion over the breafts of men. How confiderable a part of their merit we ought to afcribe to their utility, will better appear from future difquifitions *; as well as the reason why this circumftance has fuch a command over our esteem and approbation +. SECTION III. TH Of JUSTICE. PART I. HAT JUSTICE is ufeful to fociety, and confequently, that part of its merit, at least, must arife from that confideration, it would be a fuperfluous undertaking to prove. That public utility is the fole origin of juftice, and that reflections on the beneficial confequences of this viriue are the fole foundation of its merit; this propofition, being more cu Sect 3d and 4th. 04 + Sect. 5th. rious rious and important, will better deferve our examination and enquiry. Let us fuppofe, that nature has bestowed on the human race fuch profufe abundance of all external conveniences, that, without any uncertainty in the event, without any care or industry on our part, every individual finds himself fully provided with whatever his moft voracious appetites can want, or luxurious imagination with or defire. His natural beauty, we shall fuppofe, furpaffes all acquired ornaments: The perpetual clemency of the seasons renders useless all cloaths or covering: The raw herbage affords him the most delicious fare; the clear fountain, the richest beverage. No laborious occupation required: No tillage: No navigation. Mufic, poetry, and contemplation form his fole bufinefs: Converfation, mirth, and friendship his fole amusement. It feems evident, that, in such a happy state, every other focial virtue would flourish, and receive tenfold encrease; but the cautious, jealous virtue of justice would never once have been dreamed of. For what purpose make a partition of goods, where every one has already more than enough? Why give rife to property, where there cannot poffibly be any injury? Why call this object mine, when upon the feizing of it by another, I need but stretch out my hand to poffefs myself of what is equally valuable? Juftice, in that cafe, being totally USELESS, would be an idle ceremonial, and could never poffibly have place in the catalogue of virtues. We fee, even in the present neceffitous condition of mankind, that, wherever any benefit is bestowed by nature in an unlimited abundance, we leave it always in common among the whole human race, and make no fubdivifions of right and property. Water and air, though the most neceffary of all objects, are not challenged as the property of individuals; nor can any man commit injuftice by the moft lavish ufe and |