THE CHEMIS T. ADVERTISEMENT. In presenting to our readers a new series of THE CHEMIST, with the addition of another sheet, we feel it incumbent on us briefly to state the reasons which have induced-we might say, compelled-us to make this improvement and augmentation; and we feel convinced that all lovers of science, as well as those who are engaged in the departments of CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, AGRICULTURE, and PHARMACY, when informed that they arise entirely from the vast increase in the supply of matter from abroad, with the expectation of much that is original and important, on all the subjects connected with the work, from many esteemed and enlightened correspondents in this country, they will heartily join in our gratification and pleasure at the prospect, thus afforded, of the great advance of knowledge during the current year, evinced by the necessity of an enlarge. ment, by one half, of that Journal, which, for the last three years, has been the only record and depository, in Great Britain, of the Chemistry of foreign countries and our own. Our chief inducement to make this alteration is to supply our readers with all that they can require, without their being obliged to resort to works of an inferior character, and to save the expense of purchasing them. This we shall be able to do for the very moderate price of One Shilling. Each of our columns contains as much as an ordinary octavo page, printed in single column. Our 48 pages, therefore, are equal to 96 of the "Pharmaceutical Journal *", and we could reprint a whole No. of "The Philosophical *It usually contains only 64 pages. N. S. VOL. I.-No. I. January, 1843. Magazine*," and have some space to spare; consequently, if our work were printed in the same style as the former, we could well afford to sell it at Sixpence. It is necessary to mention these facts, to show how much more matter we can supply at the same charge, or less, than any other work not printed in double columns. 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It is to us a source of no inconsiderable satisfaction, to reflect that the establishment of this work has had the happy effect of inducing a vast desire for chemical knowledge; as one among many proofs of which we may adduce the method now adopted of intro *Published at 2s. 6d. B ducing into schools instruction in this beautiful and necessary science, besides the manifest and highly praiseworthy cultivation and study of it by the operative and mechanical classes, who very frequently display a knowledge of this and other subjects far greater in comparison than is obtained by those who occupy much higher stations, and who, from this circumstance, not from knowledge, too often look down with superciliousness upon them, from their greater advantages rather than greater acquirements. The late amiable and philanthropic Dr. BIRKBECK,-whose enlarged and liberal views ever formed the distinguishing characteristics of his mind,adopted the enlightened plan of amending the moral and social condition of the mechanics of his country, through the medium of intellectual improvement, founded those valuable establishments called MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS, and introduced courses of lectures on all subjects calculated to advance the artisan in his occupation, and to give him a knowledge of many other important subjects. Among the various branches of science upon which occasional lectures are given, he introduced CHEMISTRY, than which there is no science more important or more closely connected with the various occupations of mechanics. So long as these institutions endure, will the memory of their worthy and estimable founder be revered, and his loss regretted, as those of a benefactor and a friend. Chemistry, it must be quite manifest to every intelligent mind, ought to form part of every liberal, we had almost said decent, education, as the means by which mankind may obtain an insight into the laws and operations of nature, and into the properties of the various substances with which we are surrounded,-subjects which deeply concern every one, as involving either the business of life, or the enlargement of knowledge. We cannot but observe, among those whose occupations require the study of this science, that a very considerable increase has taken place in the desire for chemical knowledge since the publication of THE CHEMIST, and particularly among those engaged in the larger chemical operations, in whose establishments this work is invariably found. Among Chemists and Druggists, the greater portion, and the larger houses, have regarded it as their advocate from the first, and are its constant subscribers; and we trust that the emulation of the younger part of the trade will not feel content with, and limit their stock of scientific knowledge to, the puerile, ignorant, and twaddling Transactions attempted to be foisted on them by the agents of the Bloomsbury Square Society, or any other pretenders of this class; these productions convinced us "ad aperturam libri," that their conductors are unable to write one word. It was to improve the knowledge, condition, and respectability of Chemists, that our work was commenced. Now, after three years, we find ourselves in the situation of calling their attention to the increased means afforded us of rendering them still further benefit by enlarging our Journal, and adding thereto much valuable and important matter, and particularly on Agriculture, to which we intend to pay very considerable attention. Our past conduct is the best assurance and guarantee for the future, and we shall not regard as thrown away the greatly increased labor which will devolve on us, if our efforts receive that approbation and encouragement with which THE CHEMIST has hitherto been favored. 3 I. CHEMISTRY. ON THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPE- BY CHARLES WATT. oil, cocoa nut oil, and the oil of the tallow Or the innumerable varieties of organic That the solid state of these bodies arises solely from the increased chemical action of the elements whence they are formed, in both vegetables and animals, cannot, I think, be doubted. I have not yet been able, with anything like precision, to trace in those of vegetable origin the causes which operate to produce this tendency; but in the animal kingdom, very many facts fully bearing out the views I have already stated have presented themselves, and, reasoning from analogy, throw much light on the mode of their During a very long and laborious train of observation and experiment, certain facts have presented themselves, and have led to conclusions fully borne out by subsequent and more ample investigation, that may not prove unworthy of the consideration of our readers; I shall, therefore, proceed to give some of those facts which have come under my notice, and which appear most conclusive, but it is by no means my intention to offer any definitive theory in all cases, as these remain for future and much more minute research. Very early in my prosecution of this subject, to which I was led in consequence of some extensive engagements with the view of improving the solidity of fatty bodies, and of decoloring certain oils, I arrived at the conclusion, that the different states of fluidity and solidity mainly depend, as regards those of the vegetable kingdom, on climate, and, as regards those of the animal kingdom, not only on climate, but on the temperature of the blood. It seems hardly possible that it can have escaped the observation of chemists, that those oils which are solid at the ordinary temperature of our atmosphere are all the produce of hot climates, viz. palm *The immense pressure of business which has of late encompassed me has prevented me from contributing to this Journal so largely as I could have wished, but in future Numbers I shall give the results of some important observations, collected with great care. I shall now proceed to detail those facts which have come under my notice, and the observations arising from them, with regard to the oils and fat of the animal kingdom; and first it is necessary to state, that until about the year 1813, chemists were not acquainted with the two different states existing in oils. It was supposed, when, in hot weather, fats become soft and oily, that a portion of them had melted; and when, in cold weather, the fluid oils had become solid, that a portion had congealed. This is not the case, as all oils and fats, with the exception of seal oil, contain two distinct * It is no refutation of this opinion to allege that, because they are not found solid in the regions of their production, climate is not the cause of their tendency to solidity. The species of tree, of course, has its share of influence, otherwise, were climate the sole cause, other oils would be subject to the same results, which is not the case. With the difficulty of tracing the various actions going on in those bodies, every che. mist must be well acquainted; and until the subject receives some further elucidation from the researches of men of science, who may have opportunity, not much progress can be expected. We, however, do not despair of seeing the same benefits arising from the application of chemistry to vegetable anatomy and physiology, as has resulted from the labors and talents of Liebig to those of the animal kingdom. Sure are we that much good would be effected; and chemists have met and conquered difficulties quite as great," possunt quia posse videntur." parts-the one fluid nearly at the ordinary temperature, i. e. at about 60°, and the other at about 130°: the former is termed elaïne, from eλalov, oil; and the other stearine, from σTeap, fat. In cold-blooded animals, the oil is of a liquid consistence, while in warm-blooded ones the more solid form abounds. In land animals, it is a very curious and remarkable fact that the quantity of hard fat diminishes progressively towards the extremities, where the elaine is almost free from stearine, and is there quite fluid, as is shown in the oil about the feet of most animals. It increases, on the contrary, as it approximates to the heart and circulating organs; so that in these situations it contains nearly three fourths more stearine than elaïne, and in that portion surrounding the top of the ventricles, and which is derived from the coronary artery, it predominates in still greater proportion. With these facts every one must be acquainted yet no notice of these causes is to be found in Chemical or Physiological writers. is also found contiguous and external to muscle. In the interior it is composed chiefly of stearine: in the two latter situations of elaïne, as has already been observed. While this substance owes its existence to a peculiar chemical action going on in the adipose membrane, by which its two constituents, stearine and elaïne are generated, it is evident that as the higher action of the circulating system is internal, so does fat in the interior contain more stearine; and as at the external surface less powerful action is maintained, so does the external fat contain more elaïne. I have examined the fats from all climates, and in conformity with the law here laid down, I have found, universally, that the proportion of stearine increases with the temperature of the climate, while the elaïne increases with its diminution. weather in the same climate animals possess more stearine, and even that at the extremities is increased. In warm This provision of nature subserves very important purposes in the animal functions; for it must be evident that if, in cold climates or cold weather, the fat deposited beneath the skin and on the backs of animals were composed of stearine, it would Another very remarkable fact is, that all the fat which is situated about the heart, kidneys, mesentery, &c., and which abounds in stearine, is encased in a very thin deli-be liable to be congealed, and thus greatly cate cellular tissue, easily broken, as must be well known to every one who has observed with what facility suet is separated (whence its fitness for domestic purposes), while that fat, on the contrary, which is composed almost entirely of elaïne, is enveloped in a strong thick membranous substance of great tenacity and firmness. In the numerous trials and experiments I have made, and in which the greatest care was taken, I have moreover found that a given quantity of fat taken from the same parts of the male and female animal, of the same age and species, yielded in the former invariably two and even three per cent. more stearine than in the latter; the same is the case in fleet animals as compared with slow ones, as is evident in the deer contrasted with the hog. It is manifest from the foregoing facts that the increased quantity of stearine in animals depends entirely on the energy of the vital system, and its greater preponderance internally in the same animal on its nearer approach to the great vital or circulating organs. Another circumstance which claims particular notice, is the locality of fat in animals, which also tends greatly to prove the dependence it has on the energy of the vital system, for the quantity of stearine it possesses. Fat is found in great abundance about the trunk of the body,-and in this, either internally or at the surface, and it to impede their locomotive powers, and even to endanger their existence. If, on the other hand, the internal fat were of an oily nature, it would be no less injurious to the functions of the vital system, inasmuch as being contained in a thick and firm membrane, upon which it is extremely probable its oily consistence depends, the due performance of the functions of the viscera would be impeded, and the interior of the body encumbered with a weighty substance, while very inefficient support and protection from pressure would be afforded by fat of this consistence at the proper animal temperature. If fish were encumbered with fat of such consistence, their motions would be perfectly obstructed. In this tribe no solid fat is found, except in the mammalia or warm-blooded species; and in these, as the cetacea, only in situations where there is no locomotion. In these animals, whose chief substance is muscular, and therefore containing a large proportion of nitrogen, there is not sufficient chemical action to generate the more solid fats, which belong exclusively to animals whose temperature is higher. From the preceding facts, it is quite clear that climate and animal temperature have great influence on oils and fats, and the important purposes peculiar to each species, especially of animals, is maintained with the most undeviating precision and regularity. Before quitting the subject, I must, however, observe, that, in the case of land animals, the existence of the thin membrane in the interior is as essential to admit of the rapid circulation to which the quantities of stearine is attributable, as is the thick one at the extremities, where its retardation is just as important for the functions which the parts are destined to perform. No one can for a moment doubt the importance of this subject as closely connected, not only with organic chemistry, but with anatomy and physiology, nor fail to recognise a beautiful adaptation of chemical causes to the purposes of the animal economy. I am ready to admit that some apparent exceptions to the previous statements may now and then occur; but these, upon due consideration, will be found wholly to conform to the observations modified by circumstances. Until time and opportunity shall admit of further and more conclusive data, I shall content myself with having called the attention of men of science to the consideration of a subject of such importance. ON PEPSIN, THE PRINCIPLE OF BY M. VOGEL, Jun. enabled to extract from the mucous membrane of the stomach a peculiar substance, which they called pepsin, or the principle of digestion, because it had the property of completely dissolving aliment in contact with artificially prepared gastric juice. The interest which this subject inspired, soon attracted the attention of chemists and physiologists. The great difficulty of procuring this substance in sufficient quantity and in a state of absolute purity, has, doubtless, been the reason that no elementary analysis of pepsin has hitherto been made, although the knowledge of the chemical constitution of this substance is indispensable, if it be desired to make any useful application of it to either medicine or physiology. I therefore thought I should render some service to science by devoting myself to the elementary analysis of this so-called principle of digestion. To isolate pepsin, I used the fresh stomachs of pigs. I separated the glandular skin from the serous portion of the stomach, and after having cut it in small pieces, I treated it with cold distilled water. After twenty-four hours' contact, I decanted it, and poured on the pieces fresh quantities of water. This operation was repeated for several days, until a putrid odor was manifested. The aqueous infusion thus obtained was precipitated by acetate of lead. The white flocculent precipitate which resulted contained pepsin, accompanied with much albumen. This precipitate was divided into a flask filled with water, and decomposed by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. On filtering the liquid, there remained on the filter coagulated albumen with sulphuret of lead, and the liquid contained pepsin with acetic acid. A very small quantity of acetic acid added to the solution of pepsin and The quantity of free acids contained in the gastric juice is, however, so small in comparison with the mass of aliment required to be dissolved in them, that it very soon becomes matter of inquiry as to whe-acetic acid, was sufficient to render it fit for ther the solvent action may be attributed to the arrangement of artificial digestion. the acids alone, or whether there were not, besides the acids, other agents acting a part in the act of digestion. Mr. Eberle ascertained that a gastric juice artificially composed was not endowed with the faculty of perfectly dissolving alimentary substances when there was not added at the same time some mucous membrane of the stomach, or else a piece of the membrane of the internal tissue of the stomach; but that then chyme was completely formed. Basing their investigations on the assertion of this chemist, several physiologists made numerous experiments on this subject; and finally Warmannt and Schwann were *Journal de Pharmacie. To obtain pepsin in the solid state, it was necessary to evaporate the filtered liquid to a syrupy consistence, avoiding ebullition, and absolute alcohol was afterwards added to it. There was formed, at the end of some time, a bulky, whitish precipitate, which was dried in the air. It was a yellowish, viscous mass, with a peculiar odor. The pepsin obtained in this manner has an acid reaction, because it always contains acetic acid. To completely separate this acid from it, I tried several experiments without arriving at a perfectly satisfactory result; for, although by dissolving it several times in water, and precipitating it by absolute alcohol, it lost, at each precipitation, some acetic acid, yet it was impossible, by this + See THE CHEMIST, No. IX., Sept. means, to entirely separate the last traces. 1940. To effect this object, I heated a quantity of |