and that amid war's almost constant alarms he could have made himself the foremost orator, and scholar of his time. It was this thought that led to the preparation of this paper-the desire to find out how it was that under circumstances, in some respects so uncongenial to oratory and in all respects so opposed to philosophic thought, that Cicero could have made himself not only the foremost of all orators, with perhaps the single exception of Demosthenes, but could have given to the world his letters, epistles, orations and works.

It is true that Cicero was possessed of a superior mind, but we must dig deeper than that to find the sources of his power. Sent to the public schools of Rome, he gave promise of excellence and, being destined for the bar, he was taught philosophy by Philo, the Academician, and Phaedrus, the Epicurean. Diodorus, the Stoic, exercised him in argumentative subtleties, and Antiochus instructed him in the philosophy of Plato. The poet Archias was one of his masters, and oratory was practised by him under Molo, the foremost rhetorician of his day. The orators Antonius and Crassus aided and encouraged him. The great actors Aesopus and Roscius were studied by him. He declaimed daily with his competitors in Latin and Greek, and he frequented the Forum. Scaevola, the celebrated lawyer, was his legal preceptor, and he saw service in the field under Pompeius Strabo. Adding to the advantages of the schools the benefits of travel, he spent two years in foreign lands, and, returning to Rome, began the practice of his profession, in which he became the greatest advocate of all times.

It thus appears that Cicero was carefully prepared for the bar, and he himself affords the most striking illustration of the truth of his saying when speaking of oratory he said that: "No man ought to pretend to it, without being previously

acquainted with everything worth knowing in art or nature.' But mere knowledge is not sufficient for success as an advocate. There must be that due appreciation of the true relation which one fact or one principle bears to every other fact and every other principle involved in the discussion. There must be a sense of legal perspective. The skill to present effectively the strong points in a case, and the art to conceal the weak ones. Teuffel ascribes to Cicero "an extraordinary activity of intellect, a lively imagination, quickness, and warmth of feeling, a marvellous sense of form, an inexhaustible fertility of expression, an incisive and diverting wit, with the best physical advantages." As to his "form," he speaks of it as "clear, choice, clean, copious, appropriate, attractive, tasteful and harmonious." "The whole range of tones from light jest even to tragic vehemence was at his command, and especially did he excel in an appearance of sincerity and emotion, which he increased by an impassioned oratory."

It is true that the times have changed since the days of Cicero, but the power of clean, strong, forceful and ornate speech is as great to-day as when he in the forum defended Roscius or prosecuted Verres, or from the senate drove forth Catiline. The same advancement which came to the Roman socially, professionally and politically from splendid oratory comes to-day to the cultivated and accomplished American orator. There is in a great oration a plan as complete as that in architecture, a form as noble as that in sculpture, an expression as true as that in painting, a harmony as perfect as that in music. It does not follow that true oratory fails to be appreciated by a practical people. The Romans were essentially practical. While mere display and affectation find no support at the bar, or before the people, or in deliberate assemblies,. yet directness, force and good taste continue to convince and per

suade. A false school of oratory, that of repression-false because it is not natural—is corrupting our youth, and of that school I might say, as Cicero said of Calvus, "Though he handled his style with knowledge and good taste, yet being too critical of himself, and fearing to acquire unhealthy force, he lost even real vitality."

It would be interesting, but time forbids, to consider certain of Cicero's orations. To study his rare power of analysis, his careful preparation of the facts, and the consummate skill shown by him in the defence of Roscius, and in the prosecution of Verres. To me his oration on the Manilian law seems the perfection of popular speaking. A public career was sought by every ambitious Roman. Cicero had used the bar as so many lawyers have since done to secure political preferment. Cicero was henceforth to be the politician. The great question submitted to the people was "Shall Pompey be given command over all the East." Mithridates had not been conquered. Glabrio had failed, and Rome's domain had been invaded. Such a grant of power as Cicero sought to have conferred on Pompey was inconsistent with the republican institutions of Rome, and in contravention of the authority of the senate. With what marvellous skill does the consummate orator approach this difficult question! It is his first political speech, and with apparent sincerity, he rejoices that unpractised as he is in political speaking, that he has for his subject "the valor and ability of Pompey." He strikes with a master's hand every chord of the popular heart, from that which thrills with Roman dignity, pride and glory to that which only answers to the sordid avarice, greed and gain of the populace. The picture that he drew of the great Pompey has not lost its color in all the centuries that have passed. In a great commander, said he, four things were necessary:

Scientia; knowledge and experience.

Virtus; incorruptibility, self-restraint, wisdom, eloquence, good faith and humanity.

Auctoritas; influence, prestige.

Felicitas; that subtle good fortune, that undefined and indefinable gift of the gods which in man is like the gleam of the sabre, both attractive and dangerous, and in woman surpassing all beauty of face or form is the greatest force in nature. This power born we know not how, but springing full armed into being at the moment of its birth endows with infinite grace the simplest acts, tunes to the ear the crudest speech, wins from prejudice approving smiles, and conquers in senate, camp and court.

We are now for a few moments to deal with Cicero as the politician. Personally, he was pure and amiable, virtuous, generous and kind, bearing himself with dignity and without ostentation, but there was nothing Arcadian in his methods. He learned the names and residences of the prominent citizens, he courted his people, he had a nomenclator whose business it was to inform him as to the names and occupations of persons, he made a personal canvass for votes, mixed with the people, went into Cisalpine Gaul to get votes, gave a year to private solicitation for popular support, wore the customary habit of the candidate, and for the first time in Roman history, a novus homo, with no other recommendation than his eloquence and his merit as a civil magistrate, became consul.

There was much in the political life of Cicero to admire, and nothing was more admirable than his utterance when assigned as quæstor to Sicily, that "He received this office not as a gift, but as a trust."

Cicero was not an original thinker. Neither did he possess the strength and firmness of character sufficient to withstand the storm and stress of Rome's fierce political wars. The vice in his character was vacillation. He defended Vaternius to please

Caesar, and yet he defended Gabinius to ingratiate himself with Pompey. He sought a commission from the Republic and again courted Caesar. He resolved to follow Pompey into Greece, and then determined to stand neuter. He finally concluded to join Pompey, but after Pharsalia, returned to Italy. He was irresolute, inconsistent, over-confident, and, at times, dejected. He was never decided, but repented of every important step he had taken. And vet he could rise to splendid heights of speech and action. No braver words were ever hurled from human lips than those which, blazing, burning and consuming, drove Catiline from Rome. And when death came, Cicero met it with becoming Roman dignity. Proscribed, the soldiers of the triumvirate sought him, and from his litter he extended his head to the sword. Strange, indeed, was that death, for the murderous blow was struck by Popilius, a client whom Cicero had successfully defended. The hands of the great orator were cut off, and even the eloquent tongue was pierced with a needle, by a vengeful woman. So perished Cicero, the politician. But Cicero, the lawyer and orator, lives, and will live as an inspiration as long as a great profession admires and respects scholarship, learning, eloquence and culture.