QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER XI. 1. What is the definition of the term derivation ? 2. In what two specific senses is it used? What does derivation in the widest sense include? 3. From what four general sources is the English language derived? 4. Give some instances of instinctive forms; and of Teutonic verbal stem-words or roots; and of Teutonic stem-nouns; and of Teutonic reduplicate forms; and of Teutonic primary derivatives; and of Teutonic secondary derivatives; and of Teutonic words with prefixes. 5. What is composition? What are some of its characteristics, and from what does it differ? 6. Give some instances of the three different kinds of composition; and also of disguised Teutonic derivatives. 7. Give some instances of Latin verbal roots; and of Latin stem-adjectives; and of Latin stem-substantives; and of Latin primary derivative; and of Latin secondary derivative words; and of Latin derivative words with prefixes. 8. Give instances of Romanic verbal roots; and of Romanic stem-adjectives; and of Romanic stem-substantives; and of Romanic derivative words with suffixes; and of Romanic derivative words with prefixes. 9. Give instances of Greek verbal roots; and of Greek stem-adjectives; and of Greek stem-substantives; and of Greek derivative words with suffixes; and of Greek derivative words with prefixes; and of Greek compound words in English; and of Greek disguised derivatives and compounds. 10. What four classes of words does the Hebrew portion of our language include ? Give instances of Hebrew or Phoenician words through the Greek and Latin, and instances of prefixes and suffixes in words derived from Hebrew and Chaldaic. 11. Give instances of foreign words :-(1.) from the Celtic; (2.) from Gothic dialects kindred to the Anglo-Saxon; (3.) from the French; (4.) from the Spanish ; (5.) from the Italian; (6.) from the Slavonic; (7.) from the Armenian; (8.) from the modern Persian; (9.) from the modern Sanscrit; (10.) from the Arabic; (11.) from the Mongolian stock; (12.) from the African; (13.) from the American stock; (14.) from the Oceanic. 12. Give instances of proper English words of mixed origin; of Latin or foreign words with Teutonic inflections; with Teutonic suffixes; with Teutonic prefixes; of malforma tions or hybrid words. 13. Give instances of double forms in language; and of accidental coincidences in the formation of words; and of illusive etymologies. 14. What is a diminutive ? What are the three classes; and what are the seven terminations? with examples. 15. What can you say of surnames? and of the names of places? and of the names of the months? and of the names of the days of the week? EXERCISES UNDER PART IV. SECTION CCCCXXXVII*.-ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS. ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS is that process by which each word in a sentence is named and described according to etymological relations, as unfolded in the preceding pages of this FOURTH PART. EXAMPLES. In using the following examples, the pupils are expected,-I. To point out all the Nouns, and give a definition of the noun; II. To point out all the Adjectives, and give a definition of the adjective; III. To point out the Articles, and give a definition of the article; IV. To point out all the Pronouns, and give a definition of the pronoun; V. To point out all the Verbs, and give a definition of the verb; VI. To point out all the Adverbs, and give a definition of the adverb; VII. To point out all the Prepositions, and give a definition of the preposition; VIII. To point out all the Conjunctions, and give a definition of the conjunction; IX. To point out all the Interjections, and give a definition of the interjection. MODEL. He who tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes; for he must be forced to tell twenty more to maintain that one.-POPe. Lie and task are nouns. A Noun is a word, &c. See Section CCXLIII. Sensible and great are adjectives. An Adjective is a word, &c. See Section CCLXIV. A is the indefinite article. The Article a, &c. See Section CCLXXXV. He and who are pronouns in the nominative case. A Pronoun, &c. See Section CCLXXXVIII. Tells, is, undertakes, must be forced, to tell, to maintain, are verbs. Tells is a verb, from the ancient or strong verb tell, told, told, in the active voice, in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number. See Section CCCXLIX. Undertakes is a verb, from the strong verb undertake, undertook, undertaken, compounded of under and take, in the active voice, in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number. See Section ccCXLIX. Must be forced is a verb, from the weak verb, force, forced, forced, in the passive voice, indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number. To tell is a verb, as before, in the infinitive mode, present tense. To maintain is a verb, from the weak verb maintain, maintained, maintained, in the infinitive mode, present tense. Not is an adverb of negation; how is an adverb of manner. To is a preposition. See Section CCCLXXI. For is a conjunction. See Section CCCLXXV. ANALYSE THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES. See Section CCCLXIX. 1. Conversation enriches the understanding, but solitude is the school of genius.— GIBBON. 2. A spirit of innovation is generally the result of a selfish temper and confined views. People will not look forward to posterity who never look backward to their ancestors.— BURKE. 3. High on a throne of royal state, which far Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, To that bad eminence.-MILTON. 4. The crying sin of all governments is that they meddle injuriously with human affairs, and obstruct the processes of nature by excessive legislation.-CHANNING. 5. We doubt whether a man ever brings his faculties to bear with their full force upon any subject until he writes upon it for the instruction or edification of others. To place it more clearly before others, he feels a necessity of viewing it more vividly himself.—Id. SYNTHESIS. 1. Compose a sentence in which there shall be a proper noun and a common noun. 2. Compose a sentence in which there shall be an abstract noun, a collective noun, and a correlative noun. 3. Compose a sentence in which there shall be a participial noun, a diminutive noun, and a material noun. 4. Compose a sentence in which there shall be a common adjective and a proper adjective; and one in which there shall be a numeral adjective and a pronominal adjective; and one in which there shall be a participial and a compound adjective. 5. Compose a sentence which shall exhibit the different degrees of comparison. 6. Compose a sentence in which there shall be two different kinds of articles. 7. Compose a sentence which shall have in it the several personal pronouns; and one that shall have it in the demonstrative pronouns ; and one that shall have it in the relative pronouns; and one that shall have in it the interrogative pronouns ; and one that shall have in it an adjective pronoun; and one that shall have in it adverbial pronouns. 8. Compose a sentence that shall have in it a transitive verb in the active voice; and also one having in it a verb in the passive voice; and also one having in it a verb in the future perfect tense; and also one in which there shall be a verb in the infinitive mode; also one in which there shall be a strong verb and a weak verb; also one in which there shall be a reflective verb; and also one in which there shall be an impersonal verb and a defective verb. 9. Compose a sentence having in it an adverb; a preposition; a conjunction; and an interjection. PART V. LOGICAL FORMS. CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY STATEMENTS. SECTION CCCCXXXVIII.-DEFINITIONS. LOGIC, Greek Moyun, from yóyos, has been defined as the Science, and also as the Art, of Reasoning. A6yog has been defined as the word or outward Form by which the inward thought is expressed and made known; also, the inward thought or reason itself, so that it comprehends both the Latin ratio and oratio, the sermo internus and the sermo externus. There is a most intimate connection between reason and speech; between the mens divinior and the os magna sonaturum. As already intimated, the Greeks had but one name for both (Móyos), and they looked upon the art of reasoning as nothing but the art of discourse, διαλεκτική. Logic is concerned with the outward form, or the sermo externus. In order, therefore, successfully to investigate the principles of reasoning, as we do when we treat Logic as a Science, or to apply those principles as we do when we treat it as an Art, the FORMS of logic should be familiarly known. So intimately, also, is Logic, the derivative term, connected with Language, that it may, so far as it is an art, be correctly defined as the art of employing language properly. for the purposes of Reasoning. LOGICAL FORMS are those forms of language to which logical terms are usually applied: as, Proposition, syllogism, term, predicate. SECTION CCCCXXXIX.-THE RELATIONS OF GRAMMAR, LOGIC, AND RHETORIC. LOGIC deals with the Meaning of language; GRAMMAR with its Construction; RHETORIC with its Persuasiveness. To reduce a sentence to its elements, and to show that these elements are the Subject, the Predicate, and the Copula, is the province of Logic. To state that such a sentence as Thou art speaking is correct, having reference only to the parts of speech and their arrangement, is a part of Grammar. To show the difference, in force of expression, between such a sentence as Great is Diana of the Ephesians, and Diana of the Ephesians is great, is a point in Rhetoric. Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric, then, each being thus connected with language, are united by something more than the commune vinculum, the common bond which unites the several branches of Knowledge. They constitute the famous Trivium of the ancient 39 [ENG. LANG. 21.) schools; while the other branches of learning, namely, Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astronomy, the Quadrivium; as in these two hexameters, framed to assist the memory: GRAM., loquitur; DIA., vera docet; RHET., verba colorat ; Mus., canit; Ar., numerat; GEO., ponderat; AST., colit astra. A thorough knowledge of any one of the three cannot be obtained without an acquaintance with the two others. SECTION CCCCXL. HISTORICAL CONNECTION. There are, moreover, Historical reasons why a thorough knowledge of grammar cannot be obtained without a previous acquaintance with logic. Grammar grew up out of logic, and still retains some of the features of its origin. The early Greek grammarians transferred the terms of logic, many of them, to grammar.__Those same terms are still employed by some of the best German, French, and English grammarians. Thus the term predicate, used in grammar, was derived from logic. In order, therefore, to understand those terms in their full and exact meaning, the study of logical forms is a prerequisite. SECTION CCCCXLI.-VALUE OF THIS PART OF THE WORK. As Grammatical forms existed before a system of Grammar had been devised, so logical forms existed in language before any system of Logic. It is the office of Logic to observe, to classify, and arrange these forms, in order that they may be used understandingly and correctly for the purposes of reasoning. "If It is foreign to the aim of the present work to exhibit either the Science or the Art of Logic, in the development of its principles or of its rules. All that is attempted is to present some of the Forms of Logic, which, in other words, are but Forms of Language. "Logic," says WHATELY, "is wholly concerned in the use of Language. men understood distinctly the forms of logic, that is, the appropriate language of reasoning, they would be more apt to come to the same conclusions. They would be more apt to avoid a misunderstanding, which, in common parlance, is equivalent to quarrel. As an encouragement to the study of this Fifth Part of the present work, it should be added, that Logical forms are the same, to whatever subject of reasoning they are applied, whether, for instance, to questions connected with government, education, or religion. As men, especially intelligent men, will reason, they ought to understand and to use the correct forms of language for expressing their reasoning. QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER I. 1. What definitions have been given to logic? 4. What are logical forms? 5. State the relations between logic, grammar, and rhetoric. 6. State the historical connection between grammar and logic. 9. State what is the value of a knowledge of the forms of logic. CHAPTER II. SECTION CCCCXLII.-TERMS. THE Word TERM in Logic is from the Latin terminus (Greek rippa), a boundary or end. In a proposition there are two ends or extremities, viz., the Subject and Predicate, between which stands the Copula. Thus, in the proposition, John is wise, John the subject, and wise the predicate, are the terms termini, connected by the copula is. The Subject and Predicate are the terms of a proposition. A term is the name of any object of contemplation. Of these objects, some are substances and some are attributes. 1. Terms or names which stand for a class of things are called COMMON; as, River, tree, city. 2. Terms or names which represent a single thing only are called SINGULAR; as, The Thames, royal-oak, London. 3. Terms or names which express objects, of which one, as father, implies the existence of the other, as son, are called CORRELATIVE. 4. Terms or names which represent qualities which inhere in some subject, such as wise, hard, prudent, are called CONCRETE. 5. Terms or names which represent qualities which do not thus inhere, but exist by themselves, such as wisdom, hardness, prudence, are called ABSTRACT. 6. Terms or names related to each other, as are wise and foolish, hard and soft, prudent and reckless, are called CONTRARY. These denote only the most widely different in the same class. 7. Terms or names related to each other, as are organised and unorganised, material and immaterial, belief and disbelief, the one being a direct negative of the other, both being applicable to objects not in the same class, are called CONTRADICTORY. 8. Terms or names related to each other, as are wise and foolish, which cannot be applied to the same person at the same time, are called INCOMPATIBLE. 9. Terms or names which are related to each other, as are wise and worthy, which can be applied to the same person at the same time are called COMPATIBLE. 10. A term or name which expresses an object of simple apprehension is called a SIMPLE TERM; as, A man, a tree. See Section CCCCLXIV. 11. A term made up of a combination of words which expresses a complex apprehension is called a COMPLEX TERM; as, A man with |