called by grammarians, as they are now used only with the reflective pronoun. The reflective pronoun is of course without emphasis.

NOTE.-Many verbs of the second and third classes now omit, especially in colloquial language, the reflective pronoun; as, to behave; to bethink; to boast, see 2 Cor. vii. 14; Eph. ii. 9; to delight, see Mic. vii. 18; Mal. ii. 17; Rom. vii. 22; to fret, see Prov. xix. 3; to repent, see Num. xxiii. 19; Matt. iii. 2; to wallow, see Jer. xlviii. 26; Mark ix. 20; to vaunt. So to conduct is sometimes improperly used for to conduct one's self. In this way, verbs now intransitive sometimes have the appearance of being used reflectively. This, however, is not the case.

IV. Many verbs are construed with a reflective pronoun of the indirect or remote object; as, to imagine to one's self.

These are a distinct class from all the rest, and require no special notice.

V. Many reflective verbs are construed with a second accusative of the factitive relation; as, to think one's self worthy, that is, to think that one's self is worthy, Luke vii. 7; to feign one's self a just man, Luke xx. 20.

So to drink one's self drunk, 1 Kings xx. 16; to laugh one's self hoarse; to walk one's self tired. This is a common Teutonic idiom; compare German schlafen sich dumm, literally to sleep one's self stupid.

VI. Sometimes the reflective pronoun has the form of the simple pronoun, as in French; as, to flee one away, Amos vii. 12 (compare French s'enfuir); to get one, Numbers xxii. 34; Matthew iv. 10 (compare French s'en aller); to sit one down, Genesis xxi. 16 (compare French s'asseoir). These are mere Gallicisms, and, as such, have been reprobated by grammarians.

SECTION CCCLIX.-IMPERSONAL VERBS.

The different classes of verbs in English, which have sometimes been called IMPERSONAL, are as follows:

I. Where, as in describing the operations of nature and the state of the weather, no logical subject is conceived of or expressed, but the mere event is affirmed, without any reference to the agency by which it is effected; as, it thunders; it rains; it is warm. The pronoun it is here merely the grammatical subject. These are proper impersonal verbs.

II. Where a logical subject must be conceived of, but either is not expressed, or is expressed grammatically in an oblique case; as, it strikes four; it repented the Lord because of their groanings; let it not be grievous in thy sight concerning the lad; it is over with them. These also are proper impersonal verbs.

III. Where the logical subject is not a substantive, but merely a clause or part of a sentence; as, it came to pass that God did tempt Abraham. These propositions have a subject, but it is not a person. These are improper impersonal verbs.

IV. Where the logical subject is indefinite, or refers to no particular person; as, they say, that is, it is said, or somebody says. These have no claim to be regarded as impersonal verbs.

NOTE.-There are some impersonal verbs in English which are used, or have been used, in certain situations, without the pronoun it. It may be important to notice this peculiarity, as our common grammars are silent on the subject.

(1.) Me seemeth or meseems, past meseemed, it seems to me, Latin mihi videtur; as,

"Me seemeth good, that with some little traine

Forthwith from Ludlow the young prince be fetched

Hither to London, to be crown'd our king."-SHAKESPEARE.

The verb to seem is intransitive; consequently, the pronoun me has here the power of a dative case, as it has in Anglo-Saxon.

(2.) Me thinketh or methinks, hym thinketh, past methought, it seems to me; as,

"With suche gladnes I daunce and skip,

Me thinketh I touche not the floore."-Gower.

"Some such resemblances methinks I find

Of our last evening's talk, in this thy dream,

But with addition strange; yet be not sad."-MILTON.

"So that hym thinketh of a daie

A thousande yere till he maie se

The visage of Penelope

Whiche he desireth moste of all."-Gower.

"One came, methought, and whispered in my ear. "-POPE.

The verb to think, to seem, Gothic thugkjan, Old Saxon thunkian, Anglo-Saxon thincan, Old German dunkjan, German dünken, is to be carefully distinguished from to think, to imagine, Gothic thagkjan, Old Saxon thenkian, Anglo-Saxon thencan, Old German denkjan, German denken.

The verb to think here is intransitive; consequently, the pronouns me and hym have the power of the dative case. Compare AngloSaxon methinceth, or me thincth, him thincth, past me gethuhte, where the pronoun is in the dative case; Old English me-thuncketh; German mich or mir dünket; Swedish metyckas; Danish metykkes. (3.) Me listeth or me lists; past me listed, him list, it pleases me;

as,

"To whatsoever land

By sliding seas me listed them to lede."-SURREY: Virgile.

"To the holy land him list."-R. BRUNNE.

The verb to list is a transitive verb; consequently, the pronoun me or him is in the accusative. Compare Anglo-Saxon me lyste, it pleases me, hine lyste, it pleases him, where the pronouns me and hine are in the accusative

SECTION CCCLX.-DEFECTIVE VERBS.

A DEFECTIVE VERB is one which wants some of the principal parts,

as in the following list:

COULD is irregular, for the 7 is not a part of the original word.. Anglo-Saxon, Present, Ic can; Preterit, Ic cute; Past participle, Cus. The is accounted for by a process of imitation. In would and should I has a proper place. It is a part of the original words will and shall. A false analogy looked upon could in the same light. As the 7 is not pronounced, it is an irregularity, not of language, but of orthography.

MAY, SHALL, WILL. See Section CCCXLIII.

MUST is never varied in termination.

OUGHT is varied in the second person singular; thou oughtest.
BEWARE is used only in the imperative and infinitive modes.

QUOTH is used chiefly in the first and third persons singular of the present and preterit tenses. It has the peculiarity of preceding its pronoun. Instead of saying I quoth, he quoth, we say, quoth I, quoth he. In the Anglo-Saxon it was not defective. It was found in the other tenses. Present, Ic cwese, pú cwyst, he cwys; Preterit, Cwæð. In the Scandinavian it is current in all its forms.. There, however, means, not to speak, but to sing. It belonged to the strong conjugation, and formed its preterit by a change of vowel.

it

WIS is obsolete; WIST is not much used. It is, in its present form, a regular preterit from wis know.

WIT, Anglo-Saxon witan, to know, is confined to the phrase in the infinitive, to wit= namely, Latin videlicet. Wit appears to be the

root; wot, a strong preterit.

HARK is used only in the imperative mode.

AM, BE, WAS, are strictly defective verbs, though usually classed as irregular; just as good, better, best, furnish instances of defectiveness in comparison, though commonly considered as furnishing an instance of irregular comparison.

=

Do. In the phrase this will do this will answer the purpose, the word do is wholly different from the word do, meaning to act. In the first case it is equivalent to the Latin valere; in the second, to the Latin facere. Of the first, the Anglo-Saxon inflection

is deáh, dugon, dohte; of the second, it is dó, dóth, dyde.LATHAM, p. 332.

Yode, the obsolete preterit of go, now replaced by went, the preterit of wend. The initial g has become y.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER VI.

1. Give the definition of a substantive verb, and of a common or adjective verb, and also the general definition of a verb.

2. What are BECKER'S views of the nature of a verb?

3. Give the classifications of verbs.

4. When are verbs called transitive verbs, and in what two forms do they express assertion?

5. What is the meaning of the word transitive, and what is said of the active and the passive form in this connection?

6. What is said of the object of a transitive verb ?

7. When are verbs called intransitive verbs?

8. What is the meaning of intransitive?

9. Can intransitive verbs be regularly used in the passive form?

10. Give an instance of a verb being used sometimes in the transitive and sometimes in the intransitive form.

11. What does an intransitive verb express?

12. What are the attributes of verbs?.

13. How many persons are there in verbs?

14. What is the amount of inflection in English compared with some other languages, and what is said of these inflections of the verbs?

15. How many numbers are there in verbs, and with what do they correspond, and what sign or signs are there of number?

TENSE OF THE VERB.

16. What is tense? How many, and what tenses are there?

17. What does present tense denote, and what are the three forms?

18. Is present tense ever used for the past and the future? Give examples.

19. What does past tense denote, and what are the three forms?

20. What does future tense denote, and what are its three forms?

21. What does the present future tense denote, and what are its two forms?

22. What does the past perfect denote, and what are its two forms?

23. What does the future perfect denote, and what are its two forms? What is said of strike and struck?

for?

24. What does mode denote ?

MODES OF THE VERB.

25. What does the indicative mode denote? Give an example. What is it used for? 26. What does the subjunctive mode express? Give an example. What is it used

27. What does the potential mode express? Give an example. What is it used for? 28. What does the imperative mode express? Give an example. What is it used for? 29. What is the infinitive mode? Give an example. What is it used for? 30. Mention the characteristics of the modes.

31. What is said of the ancient inflection of the infinitive, and under what two forms do English infinitives exist?

32. What is said of the number of the modes ?

33. What is a participle? How many participles are there? What are they called? What are their forms?

34. What is said of the present participle? What were the Anglo-Saxon forms? What other parts of speech may it become? What is the proposal of WHATELEY and KUHNER in regard to its classification?

35. What is said of the past participle as to termination?

Does the perfect par

ticiple ever lose its verbal character? What does it become? Give an instance. What is said of the prefix y?

36. What is said of conjugation?

CONJUGATION.

37. What is said of auxiliary verbs, and into what two classes are they divided?

38. What is said of the derivation of HAVE? of BE, AM, WAS? of SHALL? of WILL? of MAY? of CAN? of MUST? of LET? of DO?

39. What is said of the classification of auxiliary verbs in respect to their mode of construction?

40. Conjugate the auxiliary verbs may, can, shall, will, must, do, have. What are did, hast, hath, has, had, shalt, wilt, contractions of ?

41. What is said of the substantive verb, and in what three ways is it used? What is said of worth and of some other verbs? Conjugate the verb to be.

42. What is said of the verbs of the ancient conjugation in respect to their past tense, and in respect to their passive participle? Conjugate the verb to take.

43. What is said of verbs of the weak conjugation in respect to their past tense, and in respect to their passive participle? Conjugate the verb to love.

44. What is the common definition of irregular verbs? Does this definition include the verbs of the ancient conjugation?

45. Mention the classes of the derived verbs, with examples. What are reflective verbs ? Give examples of the different classes. Mention examples of the different classes of impersonal verbs. What are defective verbs? Mention some or all of the defective verbs?

CHAPTER VII.

SECTION CCCLXI.-ADVERBS.

AN ADVERB is a word which cannot by itself form a constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can, in a complex proposition, combine with verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, to modify their meaning; as, "He reads correctly;" "he was exceedingly careful;" "he does tolerably well." See Section CCXL.

Or, an Adverb is a word which qualifies a verb, or adjective, or another adverb; as, "John struck Thomas rashly;" "the sun shines brightly; ""he is more prudent than his neighbour;" "he is running very rapidly."

66

The name of this part of speech indicates its character. It was added to the verb (Latin adverbium) to modify its signification; hence the Greek writers defined it thus: Επίρρημά ἐστι μέρος λόγου ἄκλιτον, ἐπὶ τὸ ρῆμα τὴν ἀναφορὰν ἔχον. “The adverb is an indeclinable part of speech, having relation to the verb."

The adverb belongs to the class of indeclinable words called Particles. To this class also belong propositions, conjunctions, interjections, and inseparable prefixes. But adverbs susceptible of comparison are not properly particles. Though particles now appear only. as helps to the principal words, the verb, the adjective, the substantive, and the pronoun, they were themselves originally nouns or verbs, pronouns or adjectives. Though acting a subordinate part in sentences, they still have a meaning. In their humble position among the principal words, they often seem to express an idea or an assertion within the idea or assertion expressed by those words. The same particle is sometimes, in different connections, an adverb, a conjunction, or a proposition. It should be added that most adverbs are relational words.

"The adverb is added to a perfect sentence, convertingit, if cate