Plan of Berlin.

Those of its nineteen gates which still remain have only an historical or architectural interest. The principal of these is the Brandenburg Gate, an imitation of the Propylæa at Athens. It is 201 feet broad and nearly 65 feet high. It is supported by twelve Doric columns, each 44 feet in height, and surmounted by a car of victory, which, taken by Napoleon to Paris in 1807, was brought back by the Prussians in 1814. It has recently been enlarged by two lateral colonnades, each supported by 16 columns.

Streets.

The streets, about 520 in number, are, with the exception of the districts in the most ancient part of the city, long, straight, and wide, lined with high houses, for the old typical Berlin house, with its ground floor and first floor, is rapidly disappearing. The Unter den Linden is 3287 feet long by 160 broad. The new boulevard, the Königgrätzerstrasse, is longer still, though not so wide. The Friedrichstrasse and the Oranienstrasse exceed 2 English miles in length. The city has about 60 squares. It has 25 theatres and 14 large halls for regular entertainments. It has an aquarium, zoological garden, and a floral institution, with park, flower, and palm houses. Hospitals. It has several hospitals, of which the largest is the Charité, with accommodation for 1500 patients. The Bethany, Élizabeth, and Lazarus hospitals are attached to establishments of Protestant deaconesses. The St. Hedwig's hospital is under the care of Roman Catholic sisters. The Augusta hospital, under the immediate patronage and control of the empress, is in the hands of lady nurses, who nurse the sick without assuming the garb and character of a religious sisterhood. The people's parks are the Humboldt's Hain, the Friedrich's Hain, the Hasenheide, and, above all, the Thiergarten, a wood covering 820 Prussian acres of ground, and reaching up to the Brandenburg Gate.

Statistics of population.

As has been seen, the population has trebled itself within the last 34 years, naturally not so much by the excess of births over deaths, as by an unbroken current of immigration. In 1873 the births were 35,954, the deaths 26,427, leaving an excess of 8527 births. But the increase in the population of the city in the same year was 50,184, leaving 41,657 as the increase through the influx from without. It will thus be seen at a glance that only a minority of the population are native Berliners. In the census of 1867 it was found that, | taking the population above 20 years of age, only one-third were natives of the city. The immigration is almost exclusively from the Prussian provinces, and among these principally from Brandenburg and from the eastern and north-eastern provinces. In 1871 it was found that out of every 10,000 inhabitants, 9725 were Prussian subjects, 165 were from other German states, 55 from foreign lands, and 47 were of a nationality not ascertained. The foreign element almost vanishes, and the German element is represented principally by the north, so that in blood and manners Berlin remains essentially a north-eastern German city, i.e., a city in which German, Wend, and Polish blood flows commingled in the veins of the citizens. In past times Berlin received a strong infusion of foreign blood, the influence of which is perceptible to the present day in its intellectual and social life. Such names as Savigny, Lancizolle, De la Croix, De le Coq, Du Bois-Reymond, tell of the French refugees who found a home here in the cold north when expelled from their own land. Daniel, in his Geography, vol. iv. p. 155, says that there was a time when every tenth man in the city was a Frenchman. Flemish and Bohemian elements, to say nothing of the banished Salzburgers, were introduced in a similar manner. Add to these the 36,013 Jews now resident in the city, and the picture of the commingled races which make up its population is pretty complete.

The 826,341 inhabitants of the city were found at the census of 1871 to be living in 14,478 dwelling-houses, and to consist of 178,159 households. These numbers show that the luxury of a single house for a single family is rare, and this holds good also of the wealthier classes of the people. These numbers fall far short of the present (1875) number of houses and of households, as will be seen from the fact that the value of the household property of the city in 1874 exceeded that of 1871 by £18,000,000 sterling, of which the greatest part falls to newly-built houses or houses enlarged. In 1871 the average number of persons comprised in a household was found to be 46, the number of households dwelling in a house 12.3, and the number of

persons dwelling in a house 57.1. These numbers throw
light on the moral and social life of the city, and compared
with the past, show the change in the domestic habits of
the people. In 1540 the average number of inmates in a
house was 6, in 1740 it was 17, in 1867 it had risen to 32,
and in 1871 to 57. Between the years 1864 and 1871 the
one-storied houses of the city decreased 8 per cent., the two
and three-storied houses 4 per cent., while the number of
four-storied houses increased 11 per cent., and the five-
storied and higher houses 50 per cent. With the increase
of high houses, the underground cellar dwellings, which
form so striking a feature in the house architecture of the
city, increase in a like proportion, and these and the attics
are the dwellings of the poor. In 1867 there were 14,292
such cellar dwellings, in 1871 they had increased to 19,208.
Taking the average of 1867-4 inmates to a cellar dwelling
-we get 76,832 persons living under ground. In 1871
there were 4565 dwellings which contained no room which
could be heated. This class of dwelling had doubled be
tween the two census years of 1867 and 1871. Taking 3
inmates (the ascertained average of 1867) to such a dwell-
ing, we have 13,695 persons who pass the winter in unheated
dwellings, in a climate where the cold not unfrequently
sinks below the zero of Fahrenheit. Of the remaining
dwellings of the city, 95,423 had only one room which
could be heated. This number, at 4 persons to a dwelling,
gives us an insight into the domestic life of 381,692 of the
inhabitants of the city; that is, with the 13,695 persons
mentioned above, of nearly half the population. Such
dwellings engender no feeling of home, and the habits of
the people are in a certain sense nomadic. In 1872, 74,568
changes of dwelling took place, involving an expense at a
very moderate calculation of £158,900.
In the poorer
townships there were 70 removals to every 100 dwellings!
The rate of mortality is high. In 1873, a favorable year,
it was 28 to every 1000 of the population. Taking the
deaths as a whole, 58 per cent. were of children under 10
years of age. The rate of mortality is on the increase.
Professor Virchow, in a report to the municipal authorities,
stated that, dividing the last 15 years into periods of 5
years each, the general mortality in each of the three periods
was as 5, 7, 9. The mortality of children under 1 year in
the same three periods was as 5, 7, 11; that is, it had more
than doubled. In the year 1872, out of 27,800 deaths,
11,136 were of children under 1 year.

The city is well supplied with water by works constructed by an English company, which have now become the property of the city. English and German companies supply the city with gas. A system of underground drainage is at present in process of construction. Internal communication is kept up by means of tramways, omnibuses, and cabs. In 1873 there were 54 tram-carriages, 185 omnibuses, and 4424 cabs licensed, served by 10,060 horses.

Berlin is governed by the president of police, Police. by the municipal authorities, and in military matters by the governor and commandant of the city. The police president stands under the minister of the interior, and has the control of all that stands related to the maintenance of public order. The municipal body consists of a burgomaster-in-chief, a burgomaster, a body of town councillors (Stadträthe), and a body of town deputies (Stadt verordnete). For municipal purposes the city is divided into 16 townships and 210 districts. For police purposes the work is divided into six departments, and an extra department for the fire brigade and street cleaning, and the town into six larger and fifty smaller districts. At the head of each larger district is a police captain, at the head of each smaller district a police lieutenant.

With the exception of a few of the higher Schools. schools, which are under the direct supervision of the provincial authorities, the Berlin schools are either under the direct supervision of the municipal body or of its committee for school purposes. The schools, public and private, are divided into higher, middle, and elementary. In 1872 there were 24 higher public schools. Of these, 10 were gymnasia or schools for the highest branches of a learned education. In these schools there were 138 classes and 5073 pupils, of whom 2142 were over, and 2931 under, 14 years of age. The second class of high schools, the socalled Realschulen, give instruction in Latin, but otherwise devote almost exclusive attention to the departments of mathematics, science, history, modern languages, and the requirements of the higher stages of general or commercial

life. Of this class of school there were also 10, with 143 classes, 5770 pupils, of whom 1931 were over, and 3839 under, 14 years of age. The remaining 4 high schools were for girls, with 54 classes, 2522 pupils, of whom 529 were over, and 1993 under, 14 years of age. In addition to these public schools there were 7 higher schools for boys, with 55 classes and 2098 pupils, and 36 higher schools for girls, with 243 classes and 6629 pupils.

Within the last five years (1875) no new school of this class has been established, but several are in process of erection. Between 1869 and 1873 the city voted about £328,747 sterling for the purchase of sites, and for enlarging and rebuilding schools of this class; and the sum still required for schools of this class, up to 1877, is £352,500 sterling.

The total number of schools of all sorts, higher, middle, and elementary, public and private, in 1872, was 232, with 1072 boys' classes, 1009 girls' classes, and 4 mixed classestogether, 2085; attended by 50,316 boys, 44,959 girlstogether, 95,275 children, of whom 7309, or 7.35 per cent., were over 14 years of age. The extent to which the schools are used under the law of compulsory education is very difficult to determine. In 1867 there were 103,383 children of the school age, but only 71,814, or 69.5 per cent., were in the schools. Dr. Schwabe, by a criticism of these numbers, reduces the percentage of nonattendance to 13 per cent., and maintains that even these are not all to be regarded as absolutely without instruction. In 1871 it was found that out of every 10,000 persons of 70 years of age and upwards, there were 1529 who could neither read nor write; and that out of a like number from 60 to 70, there were 860; 50 to 60, 446; 40 to 50, 234; 30 to 40, 158; 25 to 30, 155; 20 to 25, 71; 15 to 20, 58; and from 10 to 15, 48.

of a Royal Academy by Frederick the Great in 1743. Berlin has also a Royal Academy of Arts, consisting of 39 ordinary members (1875), under the immediate protection of the king, and governed by a director and a senate, composed of 15 members in the departments of painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving, and 4 members in the section for music. Berlin has also its academy for vocal music, and its royal high school for music in all its branches, theoretical and applied, and learned bodies and associations of the most various kinds. It has 9 public libraries, at the head of which stands the royal library, with 710,000 volumes and 15,000 manuscripts. In addi tion to these there are 15 people's libraries established in various parts of the city.

Berlin possesses eight public museums, in Museums. addition to the Royal Museums and the National Gallery. The Royal Museums are the Old and the New Museums. The former, which stands on the northeast side of the Lustgarten, facing the castle, is the most imposing building in Berlin. It was built in the reign of Frederick William III., from designs by Schinkel. Its portico, supported by 18 colossal Ionic columns, is reached by a wide flight of steps. The museum covers 47,000 square feet of ground, and is 276 feet long, by 170 feet wide and 61 feet high. The back and side walls of the portico are covered with frescoes, from designs by Schinkel, executed under the direction of Cornelius, and representing, in mythical and symbolical figures, the world's progress from shapeless and chaotic to organic and developed life. The sides of the flight of steps support the wellknown equestrian bronze groups of the Amazon by Kiss, and the Lion-slayer by Albert Wolff. Under the portico are monuments of the sculptors Rauch and Schadow, the architect Schinkel, and the art critic Winckelmann. The interior consists of a souterrain, containing the collection of antiquities, and of a first floor, entered from the portico through bronze doors of artistic merit, made after designs by Stüler, weighing 7 tons, and executed at a cost of £3600. This floor consists of a rotunda, and of halls and cabinets of sculpture. The second floor, in a series of cabinets running round the entire building, contains the national collection of paintings. These are divided into three classes, the Italian, French, and Spanish; the Dutch, Flemish, and German; and the Byzantine, Italian, Dutch,. and German pictures down to the end of the 15th century gallery, then containing 1300 paintings, was enriched in 1874 by the valuable pictures of the Suermondt gallery, purchased by the nation at a cost of £51,000. The Suermondt gallery was rich in pictures of the old Netherland and German schools, and of the Dutch and Flemish schools. It also contained a few Spanish, Italian, and French pictures.

The scholastic life of Berlin culminates in its Univeruniversity, which is, of course, not a municipal, sity. but a national institution. It is, with the exception of Bonn, the youngest of the Prussian universities, but the first of them all in influence and reputation. It was founded in 1810. Prussia had lost her celebrated university of Halle, when that city was included by Napoleon in his newly created "kingdom of Westphalia." It was as a weapon of war, as well as a nursery of learning, that Frederick William III., and the great men whose names are identified with its origin, called it into existence, for it was felt that knowledge and religion are the true strength-each of the classes being chronologically arranged. The and defence of nations. William v. Humboldt was at that time at the head of the educational department of the kingdom, and men like Fichte and Schleiermacher worked the popular mind. It was opened on the 15th of October, 1810. its first rector was Schmalz; its first deans of faculty, Schleiermacher, Biener, Hufeland, and Fichte. Within the first ten years of its existence it counted among its professors such names as De Wette, Neander, Marheineke; Savigny, Eichhorn; Böckh, Bekker, Hegel, Raumer, Wolff, Niebuhr, and Buttmann. Later followed such names as Hengstenberg and Nitzsch; Homeyer, Bethman-Hollweg, Puchta, Stahl, and Heffter; Schelling, Trendelenburg, Bopp, the brothers Grimm, Zumpt, Carl Ritter; and at the present time it can boast of such names as Twesten and Dorner; Gneist and Hinschius; Langenbeck, Bardeleben, Virchow, and Du Bois-Reymond; von Ranke, Mommsen, Curtius, Lepsius, Hoffman the chemist, and Kiepert the geographer. Taking ordinary, honorary, and extraordinary professors, licensed lecturers (privatdocenten), and readers together, its present professorial strength consists of 15 teachers in the faculty of theology, 14 in the faculty of law, 63 in the faculty of medicine, and 96 in the faculty of philosophytogether, 188. The number of matriculated and unmatriculated attendants on the various lectures averages 3000 in the summer term, and 3500 in the winter. During the last two or three years, however, the number has been steadily decreasing. Berlin, in point of numbers, still stands at the head of the Prussian universities, but no longer of the German universities, being now outstripped by Leipsic.

In addition to its schools and its university, Berlin is rich in institutions for the promotion of learning, science, and the arts. It has a Royal Academy of Sciences, with 46 members, 23 in the class of physics and mathematics, and 23 in the class of philosophy and history. It was founded on the 11th of June, 1700, and the name of Leibnitz is associated with its foundation. It was raised to the rank

The New Museum is connected with the Old Museum by a covered corridor. In its interior arrangements and decoration it is undoubtedly the most splendid structure in the city. Like the Old Museum, it has three floors. The lowest of these contains the Ethnographical and Egyptian Museums and the Museum of Northern Antiquities. In the first floor, plaster casts of ancient, medieval, and modern sculpture are found in thirteen halls and in three departments. On the walls of the grand marble staircase, which rises to the full height of the building, Kaulbach's renowned cyclus of stereochromic pictures is painted, representing the six great epochs of human progress, from the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel and the dispersion of the nations to the Reformation of the 16th century. The uppermost story contains the collection of engravings and the gallery of curiosities.

The National Gallery is an elegant building, after designs by Stüler, situated between the New Museum and the Spree, and is intended to receive the collection of modern paintings now exhibited provisionally in the apartments of the Academy.

Monu

The public monuments are the equestrian statues of the Great Elector on the Lange ments. Brücke, erected in 1703; Rauch's celebrated statue of Frederick the Great, "probably the grandest monument in Europe," opposite the emperor's palace, Unter den Linden; and the statue of Frederick William III. in the Lustgarten. In the Thiergarten is Drake's marble monument of Frederick William III.; and in the neighboring Charlottenburg, Rauch's figures of the same

king and the Queen Louise in the mausoleum in the Park. | exports to the Brazils, the Argentine Republic, and Japan A second group of monuments on the Wilhelm's Platz commemorates the generals of the Seven Years' War; and a third, in the neighborhood of the Opera, the generals who fought against Napoleon I. On the Kreuzberg, the highest spot in the neighborhood of Berlin, a Gothic monument in bronze was erected by Frederick William III. to commemorate the victories of 1813-15; and in the Königsplatz the present emperor has erected a column of victory in honor of the triumphs of 1864, 1866, and 1870. This monument rises to the height of 197 feet, the gilded figure of Victory on the top being 40 feet high. Literature, science, and art are represented in different parts of the city by statues and busts of Rauch, Schinkel, Thaer, Beuth, Schadow, Winckelmann, Schiller, Hegel, Jahn; while the monuments in the cemeteries and churches bear the names of distinguished men in all departments of political, military, and scientific life.

appreciated sooner and more lastingly in Germany than in his
own country. Schumann and Liszt were, as we have men-
tioned, at various periods amongst the foremost promoters of
his music. We subjoin a list of the more important works by
Juliette (1834), and Damnation de Faust (1846); the operas
Berlioz not mentioned above, viz., the symphonies Roméo et
Béatrice et Bénédict (1862), and Les Troyens (1866); a Requiem,
and Tristia, a work for chorus and orchestra, written on the
death of his wife. Of his spirited literary productions we men-
tion his Voyage musical en Allemagne et en Italie (1845), Les
Soirées d'Orchestre (1853), A travers Chant (1862), and his in-
comparable Traité d'Instrumentation (1844). The characteris-
tics of Berlioz's literary style are French verve and esprit, occa-
sionally combined with English humor and German depth of
idea. The time has hardly yet arrived for judging finally of
his poetical intentions, nobody can deny; the question is whether
Berlioz's position in the history of his art. His original ideas,
he possesses genuine creative power to carry out these intentions,
and, first of all, that broad touch of nature which leads from
subjective feeling to objective rendering, and which alone can
establish a lasting rapport between a great artist and posterity.
To decide this question the performances of his works have as
yet, unfortunately, been too few and far between. In England,
particularly, only a very small fraction of his compositions has
been heard.
(F. H.)

he has killed his mistress, and in his vision witnesses his | such circumstances we can hardly be surprised at seeing Berlioz own execution. It is replete with the spirit of contem porary French romanticism and of self-destructive Byronic despair. A written programme is added to each of the five movements to expound the imaginative material on which the music is founded. By the advice of his friends Berlioz once more entered the Conservatoire, where, after several unsuccessful attempts, his cantata Sardanapalus (1830) gained him the first prize for foreign travel, in spite of the strong personal antagonism of one of the umpires. During a stay in Italy Berlioz composed an overture to King Lear, and Le Retour à la Vie,-a sort of symphony, with intervening poetical declamation between the single movements, called by the composer a melologue, and written in continuation of the Episode de la Vie d'un Artiste, along with which work it was performed at the Paris Conservatoire in 1832. Paganini on that occasion spoke to Berlioz the memorable words: "Vous commencez par où les autres ont fini." Miss Smithson, who also was present on the occasion, soon afterwards consented to become the wife of her ardent lover. The artistic success achieved on that occasion did not prove to be of a lasting kind. Berlioz's music was too far remote from the current of popular taste to be much admired beyond a small 'circle of esoteric worshippers. It is true that his name became known as that of a gifted though eccentric composer; he also received in the course of time his due share of the distinctions generally awarded to artistic merit, such as the ribbon of the Legion of Honor and the membership of the Institute. But these distinctions he owed, perhaps, less to a genuine admiration of his compositions than to his influential position as the musical critic of the Journal des Débats (a position which he never used or abused to push his own works), and to his successes abroad. In 1842 Berlioz went for the first time to Germany, where he was hailed with welcome by the leading musicians of the younger generation, Robert Schumann foremost amongst them. The latter paved the way for the French composer's success, by a comprehensive analysis of the Episode in his musical journal, the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. Berlioz gave successful concerts at Leipsic and other German cities, and repeated his visit on various later occasions-in 1852, by invitation of Liszt, to conduct his opera, Benvenuto Cellini (hissed off the stage in Paris), at Weimar; and in 1855 to produce his oratorio-trilogy, L'Enfance du Christ, in the same city. This latter work had been previously performed at Paris, where Berlioz mystified the critics by pretending to have found one part of it, the "Flight into Egypt," amongst the manuscript scores of a composer of the 17th century, Pierre Ducré by name. Berlioz also made journeys to Vienna (1866) and St. Petersburg (1867), where his works were received with great enthusiasm. He died in Paris, March 9, 1869.

BERMUDAS, SOMERS'S ISLANDS, or SUMMER ISLANDS, a group in the Atlantic Ocean, the seat of a British colony, in lat. 32° 20′ N. and long. 64° 50′ W., about 600 miles E. by S. from Cape Hatteras on the American coast. They lie to the south of a coral reef or atoll, which extends about 24 miles in length from N.E. to S.W. by 12 in breadth. The largest of the series is Great Bermuda, or Long Island, enclosing on the east Harrington or Little Sound, and on the west the Great Sound, which is thickly studded with islets, and protected on the north by the islands of Somerset, Boaz, and Inland. The remaining members of the group, St. George's, Paget's, Smith's, St. David's, Cooper's, Nonsuch, &c., lie to the east, and form a semicircle round Castle Harbor. The islands are wholly composed of a white granular limestone of various degrees of hardness, from the crystalline "base rock," as it is called, to friable grit. It seems that they are in a state of subsidence and not of elevation. The caves which usually appear in limestone formations are well represented, many of them running far into the land and displaying a rich variety of stalagmites and stalactites. Among the less ordinary geological phenomena may be mentioned the "sand glacier" at Elbow Bay. The surface soil is a curious kind of red earth, which is also found in ochre-like strata throughout the limestone. It is generally mixed with vegetable matter and coral sand. There is a total want of streams and wells of fresh water, and the inhabitants are dependent on the rain, which they collect and preserve in tanks. The climate of the Bermudas has a reputation for unhealthiness which is hardly borne out, for the ordinary death-rate is only Berlioz has justly been described as the French representative 22 per 1000. Yellow fever and typhus, however, have on of musical Romanticism, and his works are in this respect some occasions raged with extreme violence, and the former closely connected with the contemporary movement in literature has appeared four times within the space of thirty years. known by that name. The affinity between him and Victor Hugo, for instance, is undeniable, and must be looked for The maximum reading of the thermometer is about 85.8, deeper than in the fantastic eccentricities and breaches of the and its minimum 49,-the mean annual temperature being established form common to both. His ready acknowledgment 70° Fahr., and that of March 65°. Vegetation is very of congenial aspirations in foreign countries, so adverse to rapid, and the soil is clad in a mantle of almost perpetua French natural prejudice, may be cited as another essentially green. The principal kind of tree is the so-called "Ber"romantic" feature in Berlioz's character. In his case, how-mudas cedar," really a species of juniper, which furnishes ever, the predilection for English literature, as shown in the timber for small vessels. The shores are fringed with the choice of several of his most important subjects from Shakes- mangrove; the prickly pear grows luxuriantly in the most peare, Byron, and Walter Scott, may be to some extent ex- barren districts; and wherever the ground is left to itself plained from his connection with Miss Smithson, a striking in- the sage-bush springs up profusely. The citron, sour stance of the relation between life and art in a man of high orange, lemon, and lime grow wild; but the apple and The second powerful element in Berlioz's compositions is the peach do not come to perfection. The loquat, an introducinfluence of Beethoven's gigantic works. The grand forms of tion from China, thrives admirably. The gooseberry, curthe German master's symphonies impressed him with competi- rant, and raspberry, all run to wood. The oleander bush, tive zeal, and what has been described as the "poetical idea" in with all its beauty, is almost a nuisance. The soil is very Beethoven's creations soon began to run riot in the enthusiastic fertile in the growth of esculent plants and roots; and a mind of the young medical student. But, in accordance with considerable trade has grown up within recent years bethe aversion of his national character to indistinct ideal notions, tween Bermudas and New York, principally in arrowroot, he tried to condense the poetical essence of his inspiration in of excellent quality, onions, Irish potatoes, and tomatoes. the tangible shape of a story, and in this manner became the Regular steam communication between the island and that father of what is generally called "programme-music." Whether the author of such works as Harold en Italie, or the Episode de city is maintained, the Government subsidizing the vessels. la Vie d'un Artiste, may lay claim to the prophet's cloak is dif- The total value of the export of these articles in 1872 was ficult to decide; he must at any rate be accepted as a man £64,030. Medicinal plants, as the castor-oil plant, aloe, and strong in his own convictions, "a swallower of formulas," and jalap, come to great perfection without culture; and coffee, faithful ally in the great cause of nature, versus traditional indigo, cotton, and tobacco are also of spontaneous growth. artificiality, of Shakespeare against pseudo-classicism Under Tobacco curing ceased about 1707. Few oxen or sheep

creative faculty.