Climate. But whatever drawbacks the people of Attica experienced in respect of the soil were more then compensated by the fineness of the climate. In this point they enjoyed a great advantage over their neighbors the Boeotians; and while at the present day travellers speak of the excessive heat in summer and cold in winter which they have experienced in Boeotia, Attica has always been famous for its mildness. In approaching this district from the north, a change of temperature is felt as soon as a person descends from Citharon or Parnes, and the sea breeze, which in modern times is called & έußárns, or that which sets towards shore, moderates the heat in summer. Both the Attic comedians and Plato speak with enthusiasm of their native climate, and the fineness of the Athenian intellect was attributed to the clearness of the Attic atmosphere. It was in the neighborhood of Athens itself that the air was thought to be purest. This is what Euripides refers to in the well-known passage where he describes the inhabitants as 66 ever walking gracefully through he most luminous æther" (Med., 829); and Milton, who is always an admirable exponent of Greek literature, in like manner says—

"Where, on the Egean shore, a city stands,

Built nobly, pure the air, and light the soil,-
Athens, the eye of Greece."

Thus it is hardly hyperbole in Xenophon to say one would not err in thinking that this city is placed near the centre of Greece-nay, of the civilized world, because, the farther removed persons are from it, the severer is the cold or heat they meet with" (Vectigal., i. 6). To the clearness of the atmosphere must be referred the distinctness with which distant objects can be discerned, for from the Acropolis the lines of white marble that streak the sides of Pentelicus are visible, and also the brilliant coloring which is so conspicuous in an Athenian sunset. Thus Dean Stanley speaks of "the flood of fire with which the marble columns, the mountains, and the sea are all bathed and penetrated;" "the violet hue which Hymettus assumes in the evening sky, in contrast to the glowing_furnace of the rock of Lycabettus, and the rosy pyramia of Pentelicus." And M. Bursian says "Amongst the most beautiful natural scenes that I have beheld I reckon the sight of Hymettus from Athens at sunset, whilst the entire range, as soon as the sun begins to sink, quivers with the loveliest rosy red, which gradually passes through the most varied gradations into the deepest violet. No one who has not enjoyed this spectacle can understand the purpureos colles florentis Hymetti of Ovid." This otherwise perfect climate is slightly marred by the prevalence of the north wind. This is expressed on the Horologium of Antonius Cyrrhestes, called the Temple or Tower of the Winds, at Athens, where Boreas is represented as a bearded man of stern aspect, thickly clad, and wearing strong buskins; he blows into a conch shell, which he holds in his hand as a sign of his tempestuous character. This also explains the close connection between him and this country in mythology, especially in the legend of Orithyia, who is the daughter of the Cephisus, thus representing the mists that rise from the streams, and whom he carries off with him and makes his wife. One of their offspring is called Chione, or the Snow Maiden. Vegetation.

When we turn to the vegetation of Attica, the olive first calls for our attention. This tree, we learn from Herodotus (v. 82), was thought at one time to have been found in that country only; and the enthusiastic praises of Sophocles (Ed. Col., 700) teach us that it was the land in which it flourished best. So great was the esteem in which it was held, that in the early legend of the struggle between the gods of sea and land, Poseidon and Athena, for the patronage of the country, the sea-god is represented as having to retire vanquished before the giver of the olive; and at a later period the evidences of this contention were found in an ancient olive tree in the Acropolis, together with three holes in the rock, said to have been made by the trident of Poseidon, and to be connected with a salt well hard by. The fig also found its favorite home in this country, for Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleusinian Phytalus, i.e., "the gardener." Both Citharon and Parnes must have been wooded in former times; for on the former are laid the picturesque silvan scenes in the Bacche of Euripides, and it was from the latter that the wood came which caused

the neighboring deme of Acharna to be famous for its charcoal-the avрakεç Пapvhoto of the Acharnians of Aristophanes (348). It was the thymy slopes of Hymettus, too, from which came the famous Hymettian Minerals. honey. Among the other products we must notice the marble-both that of Pentelicus, which afforded a material of unrivalled purity and whiteness for building the Athenian temples, and the blue marble of Hymettusthe trabes Hymettia of Horace-which used to be transported to Rome for the construction of palaces. But the richest of all the sources of wealth in Attica was the silver mines of Laureium, the yield of which was so considerable as to render silver the principal medium of exchange in Greece, so that "a silver piece" (bpyvpiov) was the Greek equivalent term for money. Hence Eschylus speaks of the Athenians as possessing a "fountain of silver" (Pers., 235), and Aristophanes makes his chorus of birds promise the audience that, if they show him favor, owls from Laureium, i.e., silver pieces with the emblem of Athens, shall never fail them (Av., 1106). In Strabo's time, though the mines had almost ceased to yield, silver was obtained in considerable quantities from the scoriæ; and at the present day a large amount of lead is obtained in the same way, the value of what was exported in 1869 having been £177,000 sterling.

Plain of

Having thus noticed the general features of the country, let us proceed to examine it some- General descripwhat more in detail. It has been already men- tion. tioned that the base line is formed by the chain of Citharon and Parnes, running from west to east; and that from this transverse chains run southward, dividing Attica into a succession of plains. The westernmost of these, which is separated from the innermost bay of the Corinthian Gulf, called the Mare Megara. Alcyonium, by an offshoot of Citharon, and is bounded on the east by a ridge which ends towards the Saronic Gulf in a striking two-horned peak called Kerata, is the plain of Megara. It is only for geographical purposes that we include this district under Attica, for both the Dorian race of the inhabitants, and its dangerous prox imity to Athens, caused it to be at perpetual feud with that city; but its position as an outpost for the Peloponnesians, together with the fact of its having once been Ionian soil, sufficiently explains the bitter hostility of the Athenians towards the Megarians. The great importance of Megara arose from its commanding all the passes into the Peloponnese. These were three in number: one along the shores of the Corinthian Gulf, which, owing to the nature of the ground, makes a long detour; the other two starting from Megara, and passing, the one by a lofty though gradual route over the ridge of Geraneia, the other along the Saronic Gulf, under the dangerous precipices of the Scironian rocks. The town of Megara, which was built on and between two low hills rising out of the plain rather more than a mile from the sea, had the command of both gulfs by means of its two ports-that of Pega on the Corinthian, and that of Nicea on the Saronic. The necessities of the case occasionally brought the Megarians and their powerful neighbors together; for the former greatly depended on Athens for their supplies, as we see from their famished state, as described by Aristophanes in the Acharnians (729 seq.), when excluded from the ports and markets of that country.

Plain of

Eleusis.

To the east of the plain of Megara lies that of Eleusis, bounded on the one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by that of Egaleos, through a depression in which was the line of the sacred way, where the torchlight processions from Athens used to descend to the coast, the "brightly-gleaming shores" (aurades åктai) of Sophocles (Ed. Col., 1049), Here a deep bay runs into the land, opposite to which, and separated from it by a strait, which forms a succession of graceful curves, was the rocky island of Salamis, at all times an important possession to the Athenians on account of its proximity to their city. The scene of the battle of Salamis was the narrowest part of this channel, where the island approaches the extremity of Ægaleos; and it was on the last declivities of that mountain that

A king sate on the rocky brow
Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis.".

The eastern portion of this plain was called the Thriasian plain, and the city of Eleusis was situated in the recesses

of the bay. The coast-line of this part, between the sanctuary of Poseidon at the isthmus, which was originally Ionian, and Athens, is the principal scene of the achievements of Theseus, a hero who holds the same relation to the Ionians of Greece proper as Hercules does to the Greeks at large, viz., that of being the great author of improvements in the country. In this instance his feats seem to describe the establishment of a safe means of communication. On the isthmus itself he destroys the monster Sinis, the "ravager," otherwise called Pityocamptes, or the "pine-bender," which names imply that he is the embodiment of a violent wind, though the legend grew up that he fastened his victims to the bent branches of two pines, by the rebound of which they were torn in sunder. His next exploit is near Crommyon, where he destroys a wild sow, called Phæa, or "the dusky," which probably means that he checked a torrent, since violent watercourses are often represented by that animal in Greek mythology. Then follows the struggle with the brigand Sciron, who signifies the dangerous wind, which blows with such violence in this district that at Athens the north-west wind received the name of Sciron from the neighboring Scironian rocks; the pass, which skirts the sea at the base of the cliffs, is now known by the ill-omened title of Kake Scala, and is still regarded as a perilous transit. Finally, between Eleusis and Athens, Theseus overcomes Procrustes, or "the racker," who apparently represents the dangers of the pass between Eleusis and Athens, now called Daphne; for the ridge of Mount Egaleos hard by was in ancient times called Corydallus, and this, we are told by Diodorus (iv. 59), was the scene of the contest.

Next in order to the plain of Eleusis came Plain of that of Athens, which is the most extensive of Athens. all, reaching from the foot of Parnes to the sea, and bounded on the west by Egaleos, and on the east by Hymettus. Its most conspicuous feature is the broad line of dark green along its western side, formed by the olivegroves of Colonus and the gardens of the Academus, which owe their fertility to the waters of the Cephisus, by which they are irrigated. This river is fed by copious sources on the side of Mount Parnes, and thus, unlike the other rivers of Attica, has a constant supply of water; but it does not reach the sea, nor did it apparently in classical times, having been diverted, then as now, into the neighboring plantations; for this is what Sophocles means when he speaks of "the sleepless fountains of Cephisus, which stray forth from their channels" (Ed. Col., 685 seq.). The position of Colonus itself is marked by two bare knolls of light-colored earth, which caused the poet in the same chorus to apply the epithet "white" (apyra) to that place. On the opposite side of the plain runs the other river, the Ilissus, which rises from a beautiful fountain in Mount Hymettus, and skirts the eastern extremity of the city of Athens; but this, notwithstanding its celebrity, is a mere brook, which stands in pools a great part of the year, and in summer is completely dry. The situation of Athens relatively to the surrounding objects is singularly harmonious; for, while it forms a central point, so as to be the eye of the plain, and while the altar-rock of the Acropolis and the hills by which it is surrounded are conspicuous from every point of view, there is no such exactness in its position as to give formality, since it is nearer to the sea than to Parnes, and nearer to Hymettus than to Egaleos. The most striking summit in the neighborhood of the city is that of Lycabettus, now Mount St. George, on the north-eastern side; and the variety is still further increased by the continuation of the ridge which it forms for some distance northwards through the plain. Three roads lead to Athens from the Baotian frontier over the intervening mountain barrier-the easternmost over Parnes, from Delium and Oropus by Deceleia, which was the usual route of the invading Lacedæmonians during the Peloponnesian War; the westernmost over Citharon, by the pass of Dryoscephale, or the "Oakheads," leading from Thebes by Platea to Eleusis, and so to Athens, which we hear of in connection with the battle of Platea, and with the escape of the Platæans at the time of the siege of that city in the Peloponnesian War; the third, midway between the two, by the pass of Phyle, near the summit of which, on a rugged height overlooking the Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by Thrasybulus in the days of the Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-coast to the southwest of Athens rises the hill of Munychia, a mass of rocky

ground, formiug the acropolis of the town of Piraeus, which was once separated from the mainland; for Strabo (i. 3, 18) speaks of it as having been formerly an island. On one side of this, towards Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of Phalerum, on the other the harbor of Piraeus, a completely land-locked inlet, safe, deep, and spacious, the approach to which was still further narrowed by moles. The eastern side of the hill was further indented by two small but commodious havens, which were respectively called Zea and Munychia.

The north-eastern boundary of the plain of Eastern Athens is formed by the graceful pyramid of Attica. Pentelicus, which received its name from the deme of Pentele at its foot, but was far more commonly known as Brilessus, in ancient times. This mountain did not form a continuous chain with Hymettus, for between them intervenes a level space of ground two miles in width, which formed the entrance to the Mesogæa, an elevated undulating plain in the midst of the mountains, reaching nearly to Sunium. At the extremity of Hymettus, where it projects into the Saronic Gulf, was the promontory of Zoster, or "the Girdle," which was so called because it girdles and protects the neighboring harbor; but in consequence of the name, a legend was attached to it, to the effect that Latona had loosed her girdle there. From this promontory to Sunium there runs a lower line of mountains, and between these and the sea a fertile strip of land intervenes, which was called the Paralia. Beyond Sunium, on the eastern coast, were two safe ports, that of Thoricus, which is defended by the island of Helene, forming a natural breakwater in front of it, and that of Prasiæ, now called Porto Raphti, or "the Tailor," from a statue at the entrance to which the natives have given that name. But it still remains to mention the most famous spot of ground in Attica, the little plain of Marathon, which lay in the north-east corner, encircled on three sides by Parnes and Pentelicus, while the fourth faces the sea and the opposite coast of Euboea. It was on the mountain slopes that the Greeks were stationed, while the Persians with their ships occupied the coast; and on the two sides the marshes may still be traced by which the movements of the invader's host were impeded. The mound, which at once attracts the eye in the centre of the level plain, is probably the burial-place of the Athenians who fell in the battle. The bay in front is sheltered by Euboea, and is still more protected from the north by a projecting tongue of land, called Cynosura. The mountains in the neighborhood were the seat of one of the political parties in Attica, the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, who, being poor mountaineers, and having nothing to lose, were the principal advocates of change; while, on the other hand, the Pedieis, or inhabitants of the plains, being wealthy landholders, formed the strong conservative element, and the Parali, or occupants of the sea-coast, representing the mercantile interest, held an intermediate position between the two. Finally, there was one district of Attica, that lay without its natural boundaries, the territory of Oropus, which properly belonged to Boeotia, as it was situated to the north of Parnes; but on this the Athenians always endeavored to retain a firm hold, because it facilitated their communi cations with Euboea. The command of that island was of the utmost importance to them; for, if Ægina could rightly be called "the eyesore of the Piraeus," Euboea was quite as truly a thorn in the side of Attica; for we learn from Demosthenes (De Cor., p. 307) that at one period the pirates that made it their headquarters so infested the neighboring sea as to prevent all navigation.

Present

Of the condition of Attica in medieval and modern times little need be said, for it has fol- condition lowed for the most part the fortunes of Athens. The population, however, has undergone a great change, independently of the large admixture of Slavonic blood that has affected the Greeks of the mainland generally, by the immigration of Albanian colonists, who now occupy a great part of the country. The most important of the classical ruins that remain outside Athens are those of the temple of Athena at Sunium, which form a conspicuous object as they surmount the headland, and gave rise to the name which it bore, until lately, of Cape Colonnæ; it is in the Doric style, of white marble, and 13 columns of the temple and a pilaster are now standing. At Eleusis the foundations of the propylaa of the great temple of Demeter and other buildings have been laid bare by excavation; at

in case of defeat, resolved to sell his life dearly. But no attack was made; for Thorismund was persuaded by Aëtius to march to Toulouse in order to obtain his father's kingdom. Attila was thus enabled to retire in perfect security. Next year he poured his forces through the defiles of the Alps, and laid waste the whole north of Italy. Rome itself seemed likely to fall before the invader, when his course was arrested by an embassy headed by Pope Leo. Attila at once withdrew from Italy, but the motive which led him to act thus is not known. At the time his retreat was ascribed to a miraculous interposition of Providence, Peter and Paul having appeared in the camp of the Huns along with the embassy. The whole matter is rather obscure; and scarcely more credible is the story told by Jornandes that Attila invaded Gaul a second time and was completely defeated by Thorismund. No other historian mentions this circumstance. In the year 453, Attila died from the bursting of a blood-vessel on the night of his marriage with a beautiful Gothic maiden, called Ildiko, or Hilda. He was buried by his followers with great pomp and lamentation. The vast empire over which he had ruled broke up immediately after his death, no one chief being powerful enough to seize the supremacy. In person Attila is described as having been of true Hunnish type, short, but strongly made, with a large head, flat, widespread nostrils, and small glittering eyes. His presence was majestic and imposing, and he excelled all his followers in military exercises.

A

ATTOCK, a town and fort of British India, in the Panjab, situated on the eastern bank of the Indus, in 33° 54 N. lat., and 72° 20′ E. long. The place is both of political and commercial importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the military and trade route through the Khaibar Pass into Afghánistán. Alexander the Great, Tamerlane, and Nádir Sháh, are believed to have successively crossed the Indus at or about this spot in their respective invasions of India. The river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about 200 yards broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated skins of oxen. bridge of boats is maintained for a considerable part of the year, but withdrawn in the summer as soon as the melting of the snows in the northern mountains endangers it. The fort of Attock was built by the emperor Akbar in 1581, on a low hillock beside the river. The walls are of polished stone, and the whole structure is handsome; but from a military point of view it is of little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is divided only by a ravine. The town was formerly a place of importance, but has now fallen into decay. On the opposite side of the river is the village of Khairábád, with a fort, also erected by Akbar according to some, or by Nádir Sháh according to others.

ATTORNEY, in English Law, signifies, in its widest sense, any substitute or agent appointed to act in "the turn, stead, or place of another." The term is now commonly confined to a class of qualified agents who undertake the conduct of legal proceedings for their clients. By the common law the actual presence of the parties to a suit was considered indispensable, but the privilege of appearing by attorney was conceded in certain cases by special dispensation, until the statute of Merton and subsequent enactments made it competent for both parties in all judicial proceedings to appear by attorney. Solicitors appear to have been at first distinguished from attorneys, as not having the attorney's power to bind their principals, but latterly the distinction has been between attorneys as the agents formally appointed in actions at law, and solicitors who take care of proceedings in Parliament, Chancery, Privy Council, &c. In practice, however, and in ordinary language, the terms are synonymous. Regulations regarding the qualification of attorneys are found as far back as the 20 Edward I., which required the judges to select in each county the most learned and able attorneys and apprentices to do service in the courts. By the 6 and 7 Vict. c. 73, and other statutes, the qualifications necessary for admission on the rolls of attorneys and solicitors are:-1st, The due execution of a proper contract in writing with some practising attorney or solicitor for the term of five years, or of three years if the clerk be a graduate of the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, London, or Durham, or of the Queen's University, Ireland, or if he have been a member of the bar, a writer to the signet, a solicitor before the supreme courts in Scotland, or for ten vears bona fide

managing clerk to an attorney; 2d, The payment of the stamp duty on such contract, amounting to £80; 3d, The registry or enrolment of the contract within six calendar months; 4th, Actual service for the prescribed period in the proper business of an attorney and solicitor; but one year may be served with the London agent, and, where the service is for five years, another year with a barrister or certificated special pleader; 5th, Due notices of the application to be admitted; 6th, Fitness and capacity ascertained upon examination, and certified by the examiners; 7th, Taking the prescribed oaths, and being admitted and enrolled; 8th, The certificate of the registrar of attorneys that he is duly enrolled, and the stamped certificate of the annual payment of the duty. Attorneys duly admitted in any of the superior courts have a right to be admitted and to practise in any of the courts in the kingdom, and this right may be enforced by mandamus. They may act as advocates in certain of the inferior courts. Conveyancing, formerly considered the exclusive business of the bar, is now often performed by attorneys. Barristers are understood to require the intervention of an attorney in all cases that come before them professionally, although in criminal cases the prisoner not unfrequently engages a counsel directly by giving him a fee in open court. The relation of attorney and client disqualifies the former from dealing with his client on his own behalf, while it gives him a lien, on professional services, over the deeds, &c., of the client in his possession. An attorney may be struck off the rolls for professional or other misconduct, on application by counsel at the instance of an injured party, or, as the case generally is, of the Incorporated Law Society as representing the profession.

A letter or power of Attorney is an authority under hand and seal, empowering the person named therein to do some act on behalf of the principal, which otherwise could only be done by the principal himself. It expires with death of the principal, and is revocable at his will, unless it has been given for a valuable consideration. A warrant of Attorney is an authority to one or more attorneys to appear for the party executing it, in a court of record, at the suit of the person for whose benefit it is given, and to suffer judgment summarily to pass in his favor. It is usually given as a security to creditors for the summary recovery of money lent, or sums certain, but may be used in other cases also.

ATTORNEY-GENERAL, the chief law officer appointed to manage all the legal affairs and suits in which the Crown is interested. He is appointed by patent, authorizing him to hold office during the Queen's pleasure. He is ex officio the leader of the bar, and only counsel of the highest eminence are appointed to the office. The royal mandate of 14th December, 1814, gives him precedence in all the courts, and it is now settled that in the House of Lords he has precedence of the Lord Advocate, even in Scotch appeals. He is a necessary party to all proceedings affecting the Crown, and has extensive powers of control in matters relating to charities, lunatics' estates, criminal prosecutions, &c. His assistant, also appointed by patent, is the Solicitor-General, who has full power to act in the absence of his principal, and by almost invariable usage succeeds to his office when it becomes vacant. The income attached to these offices has hitherto been derived in great part from fees on patents for inventions, but by a recent arrangement the Attorney-General and Solicitor-General receive a salary of £7000 and £6000 respectively, exclusive of such fees as they may receive for any litigious business they may conduct on behalf of the Crown.

ATTRACTION. That the different parts of a material system influence each other's motions is a matter of daily observation. In some cases we cannot discover any material connection extending from the one body to the other. We call these cases of action at a distance, to distinguish them from those in which we can trace a continuous material bond of union between the bodies. The mutual action between two bodies is called stress. When the mutual action tends to bring the bodies nearer, or to prevent them from separating, it is called tension or attraction. When it tends to separate the bodies, or to prevent them from approaching, it is called pressure or repulsion. The names tension and pressure are used when the action is seen to take place through a medium. Attraction and repulsion are reserved for cases of action at a distance.