A net, about 5 ft. 6 in. or 5 ft. high should be stretched from post to post. The depth of the net is of but little consequence. Where expense is no object, it should reach to the ground.

The implements required in playing the game are(1), shuttlecocks, and (2), rackets or battledores. The former should be about 5 in. high, and about 1 oz. in weight. For outdoor play the shuttlecocks are sometimes made heavier by being loaded with lead. The body should be covered with india-rubber. The rackets should be similar to those used at the game of the same name, only smaller, about 2 ft. 6 in. long.

The game consists in sending the shuttlecock with the racket over the net, forwards and backwards, until one of the players fails to return it. The players decide by lot which shall commence or have first hand-in and

In the case of a fault, or in the case of returns that are not according to the conditions, if the adversary returns or attempts to return the shuttlecock, the service or return counts the same as though it had been properly made. If the server scores he serves again, this time from his other court, and so on alternately from one court to the other as long as he scores. When he is hand-out, his adversary commences serving from either of the courts at his end, and, on scoring, serves from his other court, and so on. In partner games the disposition of the players, and the rules by which they conduct the game, as to the two hands in, and so forth, are identical with those which prevail at lawn tennis. See TENNIS. (H. J.) BADNUR, a town of India, headquarters of the district of Betúl, consists, besides the European houses, of two bázárs. The largest, the Kothi Bázár, has a population of 2015 souls. The public buildings are the Commissioner's court-house, the district court-house, the jail, the schools, the police station, the post-office, the dispensary, &c. There is a good sarái or inn for native travellers, and a dak bangalow or resting-place for Europeans. Not far from Badnúr is Kherlá, the former residence of the Gond Rájás, where there is an old fort, now in ruins, which used to be held by them. Lat. 21° 57′ N., long. 77° 59′ E.

POST

-----10 F!-

LEFT COURT

15 F

Diagram illustrating the game of Badminton.

choice of ends. The player who is hand-in (say A) stations himself in one of the courts at his end, his adversary (say B) in the diagonally opposed court at the other end. A then serves to B, i.e., A, standing in the court chosen by him, strikes the shuttlecock over the net with the racket into the diagonally opposed court. B then has to return the service by striking the shuttlecock back over the net without allowing it to touch the ground, and so on alternately until one player fails. If this is the player who served, he is hand-out, his adversary becomes hand-in, and serves, and no score accrues. But if the player failing is the one who was served to, his adversary scores one point towards game, called an ace. The player who first scores 15 aces wins the game; but if the score arrives at 14 all, it is necessary for one player to score two consecutive aces in order to win.

The server must serve according to the following conditions:-He must stand with both feet in the court served from; he must send the shuttlecock clean over the net (i.e., without touching net or posts), and so that it will drop into or beyond the service line bounding the court served into, and into the diagonally opposed court. If he fails to comply with these conditions it is a fault, and he has to serve again. Two consecutive faults put his hand out.

The server's hand is also out if he fails to send the shuttlecock over the net; if he hits the shuttlecock beyond the external boundary of the ground, or more than once; or, if after the server has loosed it, it touches him. No fault is allowed for these failures, as they are considered more serious than those first enumerated. After service is properly given, if either player fails to return the shuttlecock clean over the net, and so that it drops within the external boundary of the ground on the side of the net furthest from the striker, the player failing loses an ace, or is hand-out as the case may be. It will be observed that in the service the shuttlecock must be sent from right court to right court, or from left to left, but in the return, by either player, it is only required that the shuttlecock shall drop within any part of the ground, bounded by the external line of all. In addition the shuttlecock must be struck before it touches the ground, and must be touched only with the racket, and must only be hit once, otherwise it counts against the striker. If the shuttlecock drops on the line enclosing the court served into, or in the return drops

BADRINATH, a town and celebrated temple in Hindustan, in the British district of Garhwal, situate on the right bank of the Vishnugangá, a tributary of the Alaknanda River, in the middle of a valley nearly 4 miles in length, and 1 in breadth, in 30° 44′ N. lat. and 79° 32′ E. long. The town is small, containing only twenty or thirty huts, in which reside the Bráhmans and the attendants on the temple. The building, however, which is considered a place of high sanctity, by no means corresponds to its great celebrity. It is about 40 or 50 feet in height, built in the form of a cone, with a small cupola, on the top of which is a gilt ball and spire, and contains the shrine of Badrinath, dedicated to an incarnation of Vishnu. The principal idol is of black stone, and is 3 feet in height. Badrinath is the favorite resort of pilgrims from all parts of India. In ordinary years the number varies from 7000 to 10,000; but every twelfth year, when the festival of Kumbh Melá is celebrated, the concourse of persons is said to be 50,000. In addition to the gifts of votaries, the temple enjoys a further source of revenue from the rents of villages acsigned by former Rájás. Some years ago the temple was shattered by an earthquake, and has only been partially restored. It is situate among mountains rising 23,000 feet above the level of the sea. Elevation of the site of the temple, 10,294 feet.

BAENA, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova, 8 leagues S.E. of the city. It is picturesquely situated, near the River Marbello, on the slope of a hill crowned with a castle, which formerly belonged to Gonzalo de Cordova, and is now the property of the Altamira family. It has four parish churches and three schools, one of which, exclusively for girls, has a high reputation in the province. The education, which is conducted by sisters of charity, does not go beyond reading, writing, arithmetic, and relig ious instruction. Grain and oil are the principal articles of commerce. The site of the Roman town (Baniana or Biniana) can still be traced, and various antiquities are frequently met with. A subterranean vault was discovered in 1833, containing twelve cinerary urns, with inscriptions commemorating various members of the Pompeian family. In 1292 Mahomet Ibn Aljama vainly besieged the city, the defence of which on that occasion is commemorated by the five Moorish heads in its coat-of-arms. Baena is the birthplace of Juan de Peñalosa. Population, about 12,000.

BAEZA (ancient Beatia), a city of Spain, in the province of Jaen. It stands on a considerable elevation, about 3 miles from the right bank of the Guadalquivir. Lat. 37° 59' N., long. 3° 28′ W. It is well built, and has a cathedral and several fine public buildings, among which the most worthy of notice are the university (founded in 1533, and for some time defunct), the oratorio of the order of St.

Philip Neri, and the marble fountain with Caryatides in the Plaza de la Constitucion. The Cordova and Ubeda gates, and the arch of Baeza, are among the remains of its old fortifications, which were of great strength. There is little trade or manufacture here. The principal productions of the neighborhood are grain and oil. The red dye made from the native cochineal was formerly celebrated. In the time of the Moors Baeza was a flourishing city of 50,000 inhabitants, and the capital of a separate kingdom, but it never recovered from the sack of 1239. It is the birthplace of Gaspar Becerra, the celebrated sculptor and painter. Present population, about 11,000.

BAFFIN, WILLIAM, an able and enterprising English seaman, born in 1584. Nothing is known of his early life, and his fame rests entirely on the voyages undertaken by him during the years 1612 to 1616. In 1612 he accompanied Captain James Hall on his fourth voyage in search of the north-west passage, and in 1613 he commanded one of the English vessels engaged in the Greenland fisheries. In 1615 and 1616 Baffin made two voyages in the "Discovery" under Bylot, and on the second of them explored the large inlet, afterwards called Baffin's Bay. The only accounts of these expeditions were given by Baffin himself, and later investigators have thoroughly confirmed his descriptions. In 1618 he is said to have been mate in a voyage to Surat and Mocha; and in 1621 he was killed while attempting, in conjunction with a Persian force, to expel the Portuguese from Ormuz. (See Purchas's Pilgrims and the publications of the Hakluyt Society for 1849.)

BAFFIN'S BAY, or BAFFIN'S SEA, is properly neither a bay nor a sea, but part of the long strait or inlet which separates Greenland from the N.E. coast of America. It extends from about 69° to 78° N. lat., and from 54° to 72° W. long, and is connected by Lancaster Sound and Barrow's Strait with the Arctic Ocean. It was first explored in 1616 by the English navigator Baffin. The part of the strait to the south is known as Davis Strait, and the narrower channel to the north takes the name of Smith's Sound. The coasts are generally high and precipitous, and are deeply indented with gulfs. The most important island on the east side is Disco to the north of Disco Bay, where there is a Danish settlement. During the greater part of the year this sea is frozen, and it is navigable only from the beginning of June to the end of September. It is annually visited by vessels engaged in the whale and seal fishery. (See Petermann's Mittheil., 1873, map 13, and Markham's Cruise in Baffin's Bay.)

BAGATELLE is an indoor game, probably derived from the old English shovel-board, described by Cotton in his Compleat Gamester (1674), though many consider that its invention is due to the French. Like billiards, chess, and draughts, its origin is not certainly known; but whatever its genesis, its name is undoubtedly French. Bagatelle games are played on an oblong board, usually from six to ten feet in length, by a foot and a half to three feet in width. The bed of the table, which is ordinarily of slate or mahogany, is covered with fine green cloth; and at the upper end, which is rounded, there are nine holes or cups, numbered from 1 to 9, thus

rules:

1. Any number of persons may play, whether singly or in sides. 2. Each player strings for lead, and he who lodges his ball in the highest hole begins. In the case of partners, one only on each side need string for the lead. 3. The player who wins the lead takes the nine balls and plays them one after the other up the table from baulk, first striking at the red ball which is placed on the spot about a foot below the 1 hole. The object of the player is to

lodge his own, or the colored ball, or both balls, in the holes. 4. The red ball counts double when it is played into a hole; and for each white ball lodged or holed, a corresponding number of points is scored to that marked in the cup. (Sometimes two colored balls are used, in which case both count double.) 5. The red ball must be first struck, and the remainder of the balls are played up to the holes-the sum total of the holes made being the striker's score. 6. Any number of rounds may be played for the game, as agreed on at the commencement; and the player (or side) obtaining the highest aggregate score wins. 7. Any ball that rebounds beyond the baulk line, or is forced over the table, is not re-used in that round.

Sans Egal, or the French Game, is the next most generally played game on the bagatelle table. It is governed by the following laws:-1. The player who takes the lead (which is decided as in bagatelle) makes choice of four balls of either color, and placing the black one on the spot, commences by striking it with a ball from baulk. 2. The other player then strikes up one of his balls, and so on alternately. 3. He who holes the black ball counts it towards his game, together with any number made by the white. 4. If either player hole his adversary's ball, the number scored by such ball, or balls, is marked to the other side. 5. The player who makes the greatest number of points in each round wins the game, and takes the lead in the next. The rule as to balls rebounding beyond the baulk line, or being forced off the table, is the same as in the preceding game.

The Cannon Game, sometimes played on a table without holes, consists entirely of cannons, that is to say, two balls struck in succession by the cue-ball. This game is played 50, 100, or 150 up, and the holes into which the balls fall are sometimes counted in addition to the cannon. Three balls only are used-a white, a spot-white, and a black ball. At starting the latter is placed on the spot, and the adversary's ball on a point equi-distant between the first and centre holes, 1 and 9. If the striker make a cannon, he goes on as long as he can score, but no hole can be counted without first making the cannon. To miss the white involves the loss of 1 point; and to miss the black ball, 5 points, The striker's break is ended when he fails to cannon, and then the other player goes on-he who first gains the required number winning the game. When there are pockets to the table, two points are taken for every white ball pocketed, and three points for the red. Should the player's ball fall into a pocket before he make the cannon, the score is taken by the opponent. In the Irish Cannon Game the holes do not count, except by way of penalty; all points made by holing the balls being added to the score of the adversary. Sometimes, in both the cannon games two points are taken for a cannon from white to white and then to red, and three for a cannon from white to red and then to white; or, when two colored balls are used, three points are taken for a cannon from the black to the red. Lately, bagatelle tables as much as 14 feet long by 6 feet wide have been made for the cannon game.

Mississippi is a game played on a bagatelle table with a bridge pierced with arches, each arch bearing a certain number-say, from 1 to 10 or 12. The balls are first played from the baulk against the cushion on to the bridge, which is placed just in front of the lowermost hole. The rules are 1. If the ball pass through the bridge, all the points indicated on the arch are counted towards the player's score, in addition to any points made by the ball falling into a hole beyond the bridge. The game may be played by two or more persons, and he who first makes the number of points agreed on-100, 200, 500, &c.-wins. A modification of this game is called

Trou Madame. In this the balls are played from the baulk straight up to the bridge without touching the cushion, and only the points marked upon the arches score-all points made by the balls dropping into the holes beyond being scored to the opponent. Another variety, called

Cockamaroo, or Russian Bagatelle, is played on a table prepared with a number of pins, holes, arches, and bells, up to and through which the ball is played from the baulk end of the table. It is a childish amusement, requiring little skill, and therefore needing only the barest mention.

In playing the bagatelle games a. much less degree of force is required for the stroke than is necessary for billiards. Some adepts are able to fill all the holes at one essay; first, by striking the red ball on the side, making a

LIARDS.

double hazard, say, into the 7 and the 8 holes, and then, either by playing direct at the holes or at the cushion, lodging each successive ball till the whole nine are pocketed. In this way, counting double for the red, as many as 54 points can be scored in a single round of the balls. When two colored balls are used, of course a proportionally larger score is made. The cue should be held lightly between the fingers and thumb, not grasped in the palm of the hand; and much use may be made of the various strokes employed in billiards-as the side, the screw, the twist, and the drag; for which terms see the article BIL(G. F. P.) BAGGESEN, JENS EMMANUEL, the most prominent literary figure in Denmark during the latter part of last century, was born on the 15th of February, 1765, at Korsör. His parents were very poor, and before he was twelve he was sent to copy documents at the office of the clerk of the district. By dint of indomitable perseverance, he managed to gain an education, and in 1782 entered the university of Copenhagen. His success as a writer was coeval with his earliest publication; his Comical Tales in verse, poems that recall the Broad Grins that Colman the younger brought out a decade later, took the town by storm, and the struggling young poet found himself a popular favorite at twenty-one. He then tried serious lyrical writing, and his tact, elegance of manner, and versatility, gained him a place in the best society. This sudden success received a blow in 1788, when a very poor opera he had produced was received with mockery, and a reaction against him set in. He left Denmark in a rage, and spent the next years in Germany, France, and Switzerland. In the country last mentioned he married, began to write in German, and published in that language his next poem, Alpenlied. In 1790 he returned to his mother-country, bringing with him as a peace-offering his fine descriptive poem, the Labyrinth, in Danish, and was received with unbounded homage. The next twenty years were spent in incessant restless wanderings over the north of Europe, Paris latterly becoming his nominal home. He continued to publish volumes alternately in Danish and German. In 1811 he returned to Copenhagen to find the young Ohlenschläger installed as the great poet of the day, and he himself beginning to lose his previously unbounded popularity. Until 1820 he resided in Copenhagen, in almost unceasing literary feud with some one or other, abusing and being abused, the most important feature of the whole being Baggesen's determination not to allow Ohlenschläger to be considered a greater poet than himself. He then went back to his beloved Paris, where he lost his wife and youngest child, and fell at last into a state of hopeless melancholy madness. In 1826, having slightly recovered, he wished to see Denmark once more, but died at Hamburg on his way, on the 3d of October, and was buried at Kiel. His many-sided talents achieved success in all forms of writing, but his domestic, philosophical, and critical works have long ceased to occupy attention. A little more power of restraining his egotism and passion would have made him one of the wittiest and keenest of modern satirists, and his comic poems are deathless. The Danish literature owes Baggesen a great debt for the firmness, polish, and form which he introduced into it—his style being always finished and elegant. With all his faults he stands as the greatest figure between Holberg and Ohlenschläger. Of all his poems, however, the loveliest and best is a little simple song, called There was a time when I was very little, which every Dane, high or low, knows by heart, and which is matchless in its simplicity and pathos. It has outlived all his epics. (E. W. G.)

BAGHDAD, a Turkish pashalic or government of Asia, computed to have an area of above 100,000 square miles. It stretches in a N.W. direction, from the mouth of the Shatt-el-Arab at Bussorah, to Merdin, situated near the source of the Tigris; and from the confines of Persia to the banks of the Khabour, which separates it from the pashalic of Diarbekir. Its general boundaries are the Euphrates and the Arabian desert of Nejd to the W. and S., Kusistan and Mount Zagros to the E., the pashalic of Diarbekir to the N.W., and Armenia with the territories of the Kurdish chief of Julamerick to the N. This great tract comprehends ancient Babylonia and the greatest part of Assyria proper. The first includes the space enclosed by the Tigris and the Euphrates, which is also known under the general appellation of Mesopo

tamia; and the second, that which is beyond the Tigris, commonly called Lower Kurdistan. This tract of country is an extensive and very fertile plain, and is watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates, which at Baghdad approach within 25 miles of each other, and afford an inexhaustible supply of the finest water. Only some parts of these fertile districts, however, are cultivated, as the population consists in many places of wandering Arabs, who are averse to agriculture, and who, in their vagrant life of idleness and rapine, neglect all the natural advantages of the country. The most productive portion of the pashalic is on the banks of the Shatt-el-Arab, in the neighborhood of Bussorah. This tract, for upwards of 30 miles below that city, is well cultivated, and yields vast quantities of dates, wheat, barley, and various kinds of fruits. The banks of the Euphrates produce abundant crops of dry grain. Higher up the Euphrates, the country which is possessed by the Arabs is a low marshy tract, formed by the expansion of the Euphrates, and is famed for plentiful crops of rice. Among the mountainous districts of the Upper Euphrates the country is highly picturesque and beautiful; it is watered by the River Mygdonius (the Gozan of Scripture), and is in a tolerable state of cultivation. It produces in abundance the finest fruits, such as grapes, olives, figs, pomegranates, which are considered the most delicious in the East; apples, pears, apricots of an inferior quality; and the finest dates, on which the inhabitants, as in other parts of Asia, depend in many cases for subsistence. The domestic animals are, the horse, for which the country has long been famed, the ass, camel, dromedary, buffalo, and mule. Of the wild animals, the lion, the hyena, the jackal, the wolf, and the wild boar, are common; and antelopes are very numerous. Hares are plentiful, but foxes are seldom seen. All sorts of poultry are bred except the turkey. On the cultivated lands, and on the borders of the rivers, the black partridge is met with in great numbers. Snipes and almost every species of wild fowl may be found in the marshes, and pelicans on the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris. In addition to these two rivers, the country is watered by the Khabour or Chaboras, formed by the junction of several small streams about ten miles to the S.W. of Merdin, and by the Mygdonius, or Gozan, the Hermas of the Arabs, which used formerly to discharge a part of its waters into the Euphrates through the Khabour, and a part into the Tigris through the Thirthar, passing by Hatra, but which is now entirely lost in a salt marsh at the foot of the Singar hills.

In ancient times the plain of Mesopotamia was occupied by the great and wealthy cities of Nineveh, Babylon, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, &c., and was in a high state of cultivation. It was intersected by many well-constructed canals and other works, which, in dispersing over the country the superfluous waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, proved extremely useful to agriculture. These works are now all ruined, and not a vestige remains of many of the canals, while the course of others can only be faintly traced in their imperfect remains. One canal, however, called ElHye, still exists; it connects the Euphrates and the Tigris exactly half-way between Bussorah and Baghdad, and is navigable in spring for large boats.

BAGHDAD, a city of Asia, formerly the capital of the empire of the caliph, and long renowned for its commerce and its wealth, is situated on an extensive and desert plain, which has scarcely a tree or village throughout its whole extent; and though it is intersected by the Tigris, it stands mostly on its eastern bank, close to the water's edge. Old Baghdad on the W. is now considered as merely a suburb to the larger and more modern city on the eastern shore, the former containing an area of only 146 acres, while the latter extends over 591. It has, however, numerous and extensive streets, well furnished with shops, and is protected by strong walls, with three gates opening towards Hillah on the Euphrates and Kazimeen. Beyond these modern bulwarks vestiges of ancient buildings, spreading in various directions, are visible in the plain, which is strewed with fragments of brick, tiles, and rubbish. A burying-ground has extended itself over a large tract of land formerly occupied by the streets of the city; and here is the tomb of Zobeide, the favorite wife of Haroun el Raschid, built of brick, of a high octagonal shape, and surmounted by a lofty superstructure in the form of a cone. It was originally built in 827 A.D., but

of the Christian era, by the Caliph Mustansir. All that remains of the original building is the minaret, and a small portion of the outer walls; the former a short heavy erection, of the most ungraceful proportions, built of bricks of various colors, diagonally crossed. The jamah or mosque of Merjaneeah, not far distant from the former, though the body of it is modern, has some remains of old and very rich arabesque work on its surface, dating from the 14th century. The door is formed by a lofty arch of the Pointed form, bordered on both sides by rich bands exquisitely sculptured, and having numerous inscriptions. The mosque of Khaseki, supposed to have been an old Christian church, is chiefly distinguished by the niche for prayer, which instead of a simple and unadorned recess, is crowned by a Roman arch, with square pedestals, spirally fluted shafts, a rich capital of flowers, and a fine fan or shell-top in the Roman style. Around the arch is a sculptured frieze; and down the centre, at the back of the niche, is a broad band, richly sculptured with vases, flowers, &c., in the very best style of workmanship,-the whole executed on a white marble ground. The building in its present state bears the date of 1682 A.D., but the sculptures which it contains belong probably to the time of the early caliphs. The mosque of the vizier, near the Tigris, has a fine dome and lofty minaret; and the great mosque in the square of El Meidan is also a noble building. The others do not merit any particular notice. The domes of Baghdad are mostly high, and disproportionately narrow. They are richly ornamented with glazed tiles and painting, the colors chiefly green and white, which, being reflected from a polished surface, impart more liveliness than magnificence to the aspect of these buildings. In the opinion of Mr. Buckingham, they are not to be compared to the rich and stately domes of Egypt, as the minarets, although they have the same bright assemblage of colors, are far from being equal "to the plain and grave dignity of some of the Turkish towers at Diarbekir, Aleppo, and Damascus, or to the lighter elegance of many of those in the larger towns on the banks of the Nile."

There are about thirty khans or caravanserais in Baghdad, all of inferior construction to those in the other large towns of Turkey. The only remarkable building of this class is called Khan-el-Aourtmeh, and adjoins the Merjaneeah mosque, to which it formerly belonged. The vaulted roof of this building is a fine specimen of Saracenic brick-work, and like the adjoining mosque, bears the date of 1356 A.D. It is said, however, to occupy the site of an ancient Christian church. The bazaars, which are numerous, are mostly formed of long, straight, and tolerably wide avenues. The one most recently built is the largest and the best; still it has an air of meanness about it that is not common in the bazaars of large Turkish cities. It is long, wide, and lofty, and well filled with dealers and wares of all sorts. Several of these bazaars are vaulted over with brick-work; but the greater number are merely covered with flat beams which support a roof of straw, dried leaves, or branches of trees and grass. There are about fifty baths in Baghdad, which are also very inferior in their accommodations to those in the other large towns of Mesopotamia. The only other Mahometan remains which it is necessary to mention are1. The Tekiyeh, or shrine of the Bektash dervishes, on the western bank of the river. The shrine is in ruins, but it contains a fine Cufic inscription now mutilated, which bears the date of 333 A.H. (or 944 A.D.). 2. The tomb of the famous Maaruf-el-Kerkhi, in the immediate vicinity, dating from 1215 a.d. 3. In Eastern or New Baghdad the college of Mustansir, near the bridge, now in ruins, but bearing a fine inscription dated 630 A.H. (or 1233 A.D.). 4. The shrine of the famous Saint Abdul Kadir, which is visited by pilgrims from all parts of the Mahometan world. The original tomb was erected about 1252 A.D., but the noble dome which now canopies the grave dates from about two centuries later. An aqueduct, the only one in the city, conveys water from the river to this shrine. None of the other mosques or tombs require particular notice.

Baghdad is about 500 miles from the mouth of the Tigris (following its course), and about 400 from Bussorah; and with the latter place it carries on a constant communication by means of boats of from twenty to fifty tons burden, though the river is navigable for larger vessels. With a northerly wind these boats will make the passage to Bussorah in seven or eight days; in calms, when

they have merely the aid of the current, the passage occupies from ten to fifteen days. Sir R. K. Porter mentions that the stream of the Tigris runs at the rate of seven knots an hour. This, however, is probably during floods, since, with such a powerful current, a boat could not occupy ten or fifteen days on its passage from Baghdad to Bussorah. In coming up the stream, thirty or forty days are required to reach Baghdad. Of late years, however, steam communication has almost entirely superseded the use of the native craft between Baghdad and Bussorah. British steamers were first placed upon the Tigris and Euphrates by Colonel Chesney in 1836, and, with the sanction of the Turkish Government, they have ever since been maintained there, one small vessel of the Indian naval service being attached to the British Residency, and two commercial steamers belonging to an English company being employed in navigating the Tigris for trade purposes. The Turks have also endeavored to establish a line of mercantile steamers of their own between Baghdad and Bussorah, but they have not hitherto been very successful. The smaller craft, used for bringing supplies of provisions and fruit to the city, are circular boats of basket-work, covered with skins, the same that have been employed from the remotest antiquity. The Euphrates and the Tigris are liable to spring floods; and the streams of both rivers being sometimes joined, inundate the desert plain on which Baghdad stands, when the city appears like an island in the midst of the sea. The inhabitants are supplied with water from the Tigris, which is brought to their houses in goats' skins, the convenience of water-works, cisterns, and pipes being entirely unknown.

Baghdad has much declined from its ancient importance. It was formerly a great emporium of Eastern commerce; and it still receives, by way of Bussorah, from Bengal the manufactures and produce of India, which are distributed over Arabia, Syria, Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor. At the same time the inland trade from Persia and the East has fallen off. The productions and manufactures of Persia, which were intended for the Syrian, Armenian, and Turkish markets, and were sent to Baghdad as a central dépôt, now reach Constantinople by the more direct route of Erzeroum and Tocat. Wealth, indeed, appears to be deficient among all classes, and Baghdad has many symp toms of a decayed city. It must, however, be noted that a very considerable trade has sprung up of late years between the European markets and Baghdad, several English houses being established in the city, who import goods direct from London and Liverpool, via the Suez Canal and Bussorah, and French, German, Swiss, and Greek merchants being also engaged in the traffic. The staple articles of export are dates, wool, and grain, to which may be added cloth of various kinds, drugs, dye-stuffs, and miscellaneous productions. A very considerable trade in horses is also carried on. The total value of the exports in 1870-71 reached about £46,900, while the imports for the same year were stated at upwards of £285,000. There is a considerable manufacture of red and yellow leather, which is made into shoes, and finds a ready sale.

The population is a mixture of nations from various quarters of the East. The chief officers of Government, whether civil or military, are of the families of Constantinopolitan Turks, though they are mostly natives of the city; the merchants and traders are almost all of Persian or Arabian descent; while the lower classes consist of Turks, Arabs, Persians, and Indians. There are some Jews and Christians, who still remain distinct from the other classes; while the strangers in the town are Kurds, Persians, and desert Arabs in, considerable numbers. The dress of the Baghdad Turks is not nearly so gay or splendid as that of their northern countrymen; and the costume of the residents is, upon the whole, unusually plain in comparison with that of other Asiatics. As every nation retains its own peculiar dress, it may be easily conceived what an amusing variety of costume must be seen in the streets of Baghdad. The dress of the females is as mean as that used in the poorest villages of Mesopotamia; women of all classes being enveloped in a blue checked cloth, such as is worn by the lowest orders in Egypt, and having their faces covered by hideous veils of black horse-hair.

Baghdad is governed by a pasha, assisted by a council. He was formerly chosen from the ranks of the Georgian Mamelukes, but is now always selected from among the highest officers of the Constantinople court, his terin of