of the empire, and furnished valuable contingents to the imperial army; these are described at a later date by Herodotus as wearing the Median head-dress, and making use of their native bows and short spears. Like the rest of Western Asia, Bactria was subjugated by Alexander, and formed part of the empire of the Seleucids; but in the 3d century B.C. it was raised to the rank of an independent kingdom by the successful revolt of Diodotus, the Greek satrap. There thus arose a remarkable dynasty-if dynasty it can be called-of Græco-Bactrian kings, who have been the object of much modern investigation, but are not as yet arranged in any satisfactory order. The names of seven or eight of them are known from the Greek and Roman historians, and upwards of forty are preserved on their coins. The great problem to be solved by numismatists is how to dispose of so many claimants in the comparatively narrow space of time at their disposal. It is highly probable that many of them held contemporaneous sway in different parts of the Bactrian region, sometimes with a distinct preponderance on the part of one, and sometimes with practical equilibrium of power; but their geographical distribution can only be conjectured from what are understood to be mint-marks on their coins. The period of the final disintegration of the Græco-Bactrian power is not definitely ascertained; but as early as the time of Eucratides (160 B.C.) there appears on the coinage the so-called Bactrian Pali, a language cognate with Sanskrit but written in characters of seemingly Phœnician origin. Besides these monetary legends, several Bactrian inscriptions have been recently discovered, among the most important of which are the "Taxila" copperplate, which has furnished the key to the Bactrian numeral system, the Peshawur vase, the Manikyala cylinder, the Bimaran vase, and the Wardak urn, but none of them are of very much historical value. Bactria seems to have passed successively under the power of various Saca and Parthian and so-called Indo-Scythian rulers, and during the first six or seven centuries of the Christian era it became one of the most important centres of Buddhistic monasticism. (See BALKH.) Its modern history is of but little importance, as it has never formed an independent kingdom of any power or stability.

See Bayer, Hist. Reg. Græco-Bactr., Petrop., 1738; Köhler, Méd. grecques des Rois de la B., St. Pet., 1822-3; Tychsen, Comm. Recen. Götting., v. vi.; Tod, in Roy. Asiat. Soc. Trans., 1824; Schlegel, in Journ. Asiat., 1828; Prinsep, in J. of Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1833-38; Raoul-Rochette, in Jour. des Savants, 1834-39 and 1844; Jacquet, in J. Asiat., 1836; Masson, in J. of Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1836; K. O. Müller, in Göttingen Anzeigen, 1835 and 1838; Mionnet, in Supplément viii. to his Description, &c., 1837; Lassen, Zur Gesch. der Griech. u. Indoskyth. Kön., Bonn, 1838; Grotefend, Die Münzen der Kön. v. Bactr., Hanover, 1839; Wilson, Ariana Antiqua, 1841; Cunningham, Numism. Chron., viii. 1843; Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, vol. ii., 1852; Babu Rajendra Lal, in J. Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, 1861; E. Thomas, "Bactrian Coins," in J. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Gr. Brit. and I., 1873; Dowson, "B. Pali Inscr.," ibidem.

BACUP, a town of England, in Lancashire, 20 miles N. from Manchester. It is situated in a beautiful valley on the River Speddon, and is a station on the East Lancashire railway. It is chiefly important for its factories, foundries, and mills, as well as for the coal-mines in the neighborhood. Since 1841, when the population of the chapelry was only 1526, Bacup has rapidly increased, and its sanitary condition has been greatly improved by the exertions of a local board. The river has been deepened for a mile above the town, and a water supply has been secured by means of a reservoir at Higher Stacks. There are two Episcopal churches and several dissenting places of worship, a mechanics' institute and library, and various other institutions. A new market-hall was built in 1867. Population of local board district in 1871, 17,199.

BADAJOS, a province of Spain, forming, by the division of 1833, the southern half of the old province of Estremadura, or what is generally called Lower Estremadura. It is bounded on the N. by Caceres, E. by Ciudad Real, S. and S.E. by Cordova, Seville, and Huelva, and W. by Portugal, embracing an area of 8687 square miles. See ESTREMADURA.

BADAJOS, the capital of the above province, is a fortified city, and the see of a bishop. It is situated about 5 miles from the Portuguese frontier, on a slight elevation near the left bank of the Guadiana, and is one of the principal

stations on the railway between Madrid and Lisbon The height is crowned by the ruins of a Moorish castle. A strong wall and bastions, with a broad moat and outworks, and forts on the surrounding heights, make the city a place of great strength. The river is crossed by a magnificent granite bridge, originally built in 1460, repaired in 1597, and rebuilt in 1833. The city is well built, and contains an arsenal, a cathedral, built like a fortress and bombproof, several churches, hospitals, and schools. Its monasteries are all secularized, one being occupied as infantry barracks; and some of its nunneries are closed. Badajos was finally taken from the Moors in 1235 by Alphonso IX., and from its importance as a frontier garrison has since been the scene of numerous sieges. The last and most severe was in 1812, when it was stormed by the British troops under Wellington and carried with dreadful loss. The town was delivered up to a two days' pillage. It had been surrendered the previous year to Soult by the treachery of Imaz, the commander of the garrison. The trade and manufactures of Badajos are considerable, and much contraband traffic is carried on with Portugal. Badajos is the birthplace of the painter Luis de Morales and of Manuel Godoy. Pop. 22,895.

BADAKHSHAN, a country of Central Asia, situated in the upper valley of the Kokcha river, one of the principal head streams of the Oxus. The name has been variously speit Badascian, Balacian, Balakhshan, Balashan, Balaxien, and Balaxia. Including Wakhan, it lies between 35° 50′ and 38° N. lat., and between 69° 30′ and 74° 20' E. long. The chief ascertained positions are as follows: Faizábád, 37° 2′ N., 70° 36′ E.; Ishkashm, 36° 45′ N., 71° 38′ E.; Punja, 37° 5' N., 72° 39' E.; and Karkat Yassim lake, 37° 14′ N., 74° 18' E. Its extent from east to west is about 200 miles, and from north to south about 150 miles. On the north it is bounded by Kulab and Darwaz; on the east by the lofty table-land of Pamir; on the south by the Hindu Kush range; and on the west by Kunduz. The Pamir land is the principal watershed of Asia, and Badakhshan forms part of the western water slope constituting the basin of the Oxus. The country is for the most part mountainous, but there are numerous plains and fertile valleys. The general slope of the country is great, level of the sea, while Lake Victoria, close to the principal since Kunduz is probably not more than 500 feet above the watershed, is estimated at 15,600 feet.

Badakhshan comprises 16 districts. The principal district called Faizábád is under the rule of the Mír Mahmúd Shah; the others are dependencies ruled by relatives of the Mír, or by hereditary feudatories. Each ruler is independent, but is bound to aid the Mír of Faizabad in time of need. The Mír himself pays tribute to the Amir of Cabul. The other districts besides Faizábád are Daraim, Shahr1-buzurq, Gumbuz, Farakhar, Kishm, Rustak, Rushán, Shighnán, Ishkáshm, Wakhán, Zebak, Minján, Ragh, Daung, and Asiábá. Each district has its sub-divisions. In Faizábád there are several fertile tracts; amongst them are the hilly regions of Yaftal and Shewa, which are thickly populated, the former by Tajiks, and the latter by Turks of the Jakha Moghul tribe; and the plateaus of Argu and Shewa of which the former is somewhat higher than the plain of Faizábád, about 15 miles in length by about 8 in breadth, and well cultivated, while the latter is still higher, and forms the best and largest pasture ground in Badakhshan. A lake named Sir-i-kol, about twenty miles in circumference, is situated on the Shewá plateau. In and around Faizábád there are numerous excellent fruit and flower gardens; the principal manufactures are cast-iron pots, boots and shoes, and a material woven from silk and cotton, called ilacha. The district of Jirm, also subject to Mahmud Shah, comprises numerous rich valleys, as well as the famous mineral region called Yamgan, or 'all mines." The mines yield rubies, lapis lazuli, lead, alum, sal-ammoniac, sulphur, copper, &c. The annual yield of lapis lazuli averages about £1500, which is sold at the rate of seven shillings per pound; it is exported to Russia, Kashmir, and China. The Dasht-Baha-rak is an extensive plain in this district, on which was formerly situated a large city, once the capital of Badakhshan. There are several villages on it, as also the summer residence of the Mír. The caravan route from India to Faizábád passes over this plain. The districts of Rustak, Ragh, Kishm, Daraim, and Shahr-í-buzurq are next in importance as regards fertility and population. They abound in fertile hills and plains. The principal

cultivated products are wheat, rice, Cicer arietinum, Phaseolus Mungo, cotton, linseed, poppy, sesame, apples, grapes, mulberries (which form the principal article of food in these regions), pears, apricots, walnuts, melons, gourds, turnips, radishes, carrots, spinach, leeks, as also numerous garden flowers and timber trees. The districts of Minjan and Rushan are more mountainous, have a cooler climate, and are more sparsely populated than the foregoing. Their inhabitants are also distinct, differing in physical features, creed, language, and habits. The celebrated ruby mines are in Ishkashm; they have not been worked for more than 30 years, except temporarily in 1866. It is, however, suspected that they are worked surreptitiously by the people. They yield the well-known Balas (i.e., Badakhshan) ruby.

The principal domesticated animal is the yak. There are also large flocks of sheep, cows, goats, ponies, numerous fine dogs, and Bactrian camels. The more important wild animals are a large wild sheep (Ovis poli), foxes, wolves, jackals, bears, boars, deer, and lions; amongst birds, there are partridges, pheasants, ravens, jays, sparrows, larks, a famous breed of hawks, &c.

Badakhshan proper is peopled by Tajiks, Turks, and Arabs, who speak the Persian and Turki languages, and profess the orthodox doctrines of the Mahometan law adopted by the Sunnite sect; while the mountainous districts are inhabited by Tajiks, professing the Shia creed, and speaking distinct dialects in different dis

tricts.

and Wakhán," in the Proceedings of the Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. xvii. p. 108.

BADALOCCHIO, SISTO, surnamed ROSA, a painter and engraver, was born at Parma in 1581, and died in 1641 or 1647. He was of the school of Annibale Carracci, by whom he was highly esteemed for design. His principal engravings are the series known as The Bible of Raffaelle, which were executed by him in conjunction with Lanfranc, another pupil of Carracci's. The best of his paintings, which are few in number, are at Parma.

BADEN, THE GRAND DUCHY OF, is situated in the S. W. of Germany, between 47° 32′ and 49° 52′ N. lat., and between 7° 27 and 9° 50′ E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt; W. by Rhenish Bavaria, Alsace, and Lorraine; S. by Switzerland; and E. by Würtemberg and part of Bavaria. At the commencement of the present century Baden was only a margraviate, with an area little exceeding 1300 square miles, and a population of 210,000. Since then it has from time to time acquired additional territory, so that its area now amounts

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Badakhshan was visited by Hwen Thsang in 630 and 644. The Arabian geographers of the 10th century speak of its mines of ruby and azure, and give notices of the flourishing commerce and large towns of Waksh and Khotl, regions which appear either to have in part corresponded with or to have lain close to Badakhshan. In 1272-73 Marco Polo and his companions stayed for a time in Badakhshan. During this and the following centuries the country was governed by kings who claimed to be descendants of Alexander the Great. The last of these kings was Shah Mahomet, who died in the middle of the 15th century, leaving only his married daughters to represent the royal line. Early in the middle of the 16th century the Uzbeks obtained possession of Badakhshan, but were soon expelled, and then the country was generally governed by descendants of the old royal dynasty by the female line. About the middle of the 18th century the present dynasty of Mirs established its footing in place of the old one, which had become extinct. In 1765 the country was invaded and ravaged by the ruler of Cabul. During the first three decades of the present century it was overrun and depopulated by Kokan Beg and his son Murad Beg, chiefs of the Kataghan Uzbeks of Kundus. The country was still suffering from these disasters when Wood visited it in 1837. When Murad Beg died, the power passed into the hands of another Uzbek, Mahomet Amir Khan. In 1859 the Kataghan Uzbeks were expelled; and Mír Jahander Shah, the representative of the modern royal line, was reinstated at Faizábád under the supremacy of the Afghans. In 1867 he was expelled by the Afghans and replaced by the present ruler, Mír Mahomet Shah, and other representatives of the same family. According to the latest accounts the country was reviving from its past misfortunes, and the towns were again rising. Badakhshan owes part of its prosperity to the baneful traffic in slaves. A strong man is considered a fair exchange for a large dog or horse, and a fine girl for about four horses. The district is of some political interest in connection with the frontier line of Afghanistan, which has recently been the subject of discussion between the Russian and British Governments.

In 1867 a report on Badakhshan was drawn up by the Pundit Mun-phool after a sojourn of two or three years in the country. For further information, see the Book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. i. 1871, edited by Col. Yule; A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus, by Capt. J. Wood, edition of 1872; "Report on the Mirza's Exploration from Cabul to Kashgar," by Major Montgomerie, in the Journal of Roy. Geo. Soc.," vol. xli. p. 132; "A Havildar's journey through Chitral to Faizabad in 1870," by Major Montgomerie, in journal last mentioned, vol. xlii. p. 180; "Papers connected with the Upper Oxus Regions," by Col. Yule, in the same volume, p. 438; "Monograph on the Oxus," by Maj. Gen. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, in the same volume, p. 482; and a paper by the writer last mentioned, "On Badakhshan

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Sketch-Map of the Grand Duchy of Baden.

to upwards of 5800 square miles, and its population to nearly a million and a half.

It consists of a considerable portion of the eastern half of the fertile valley of the Rhine, and of the mountains which form its boundary. The mountainous part is by far the most extensive, forming, indeed, nearly 80 per cent. of the whole area. From the Lake of Constance in the south to the River Neckar is a portion of the so-called Black Forest or Schwarzwald, which is divided by the valley of the Kinzig into two districts of different elevation. To the south of the Kinzig the mean height is 3100 feet, and the loftiest summit, the Feldberg, reaches about 4780 feet; while to the north the mean height is only 2100 feet, and the Belchen, the culminating point of the whole, does not exceed 4480. To the north of the Neckar is the Odenwald range, with a mean of 1440 feet, and, in the Katzenbuckel, an extreme of 1980. Lying between the Rhine and the Dreisam is the Kaiserstuhl, an independent volcanic group, nearly 10 miles in length and 5 in breadth, the highest point of which is 1760 feet.

The greater part of Baden belongs to the basin of the Rhine, which receives upwards of twenty tributaries from the highlands of the duchy alone; a portion of the territory is also watered by the Main and the Neckar. A part, however, of the eastern slope of the Black Forest belongs

to the basin of the Danube, which there takes its rise in a number of mountain streams. Among the numerous lakes which belong to the duchy are the Mummel, Wilder, Nonnenmattweiher, Titti, Eichener, Schluch, &c., but none of them are of any size. The Lake of Constance, or Boden See, belongs partly to Bavaria and Switzerland."

From 1819 to 1832 Baden was divided into six circles, which were reduced in the latter year to the four following: The Lake Circle or Constance, the Upper Rhine or Freiburg, the Middle Rhine or Carlsruhe, and the Lower Rhine or Manheim. This division, though still employed, has been legally supplanted by one into the eleven circles of Constance, Villingen, Waldshut, Freiburg, Lörrach, Offenburg, Baden, Carlsruhe, Manheim, Heidelberg, and Mosbach. The capital of the duchy is Carlsruhe, which in 1871 had a population of 36,582; the other principal towns are Manheim (39,614), Freiburg (24,599), Heidelberg (19,988), Pforzheim (19,801), Rastadt (11,559), Baden | (10,083), Constance (10,052), Bruchsal (9786), and Lahr (6710). The population is most thickly clustered in the north and in the neighborhood of the Swiss town of Basel. The mineral wealth of Baden is not very great; but the mines of Oberwert, Kandern, &c., produce excellent iron; there are two zinc mines and one of lead; coal is worked at Diesburg, Zunsweier, Baden, &c.; and silver, copper, gold, cobalt, alum, vitriol, and sulphur are also obtained in small quantities. Gold washing, at one time extensively carried on along the Rhine, is now little practised. Peat is found in abundance, as well as gypsum, china-clay, and potters' earth. The duchy was formerly dependent on France for its salt supply, but extensive salt works have for a number of years been maintained by the Government at Dürrheim and Rappenau. In 1874 the amount produced was of the value of £54,880. The mineral springs of Baden are very numerous, and have acquired great celebrity,-those of Baden-Baden, Badenweiler, Antogast, Griesbach, Friersbach, and Petersthal, being the most frequented.

The inhabitants of Baden are of various origin,-those to the N. of the Murg being descended from the Alemanni, and those to the S. from the Franks, while the Swabian plateau derives its name and its population from another race. This distinction is still marked in the manners, the language, and the dress of the different districts. The majority of the people are engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits, for which much of the country is well adapted. In the valleys the soil is particularly fertile, yielding luxuriant crops of wheat, maize, barley, spelt, beans, potatoes, flax, hemp, hops, beet-root, and tobacco; and even in the more mountainous parts rye, wheat, and oats are extensively cultivated. There is a considerable extent of pasture land, and the rearing of cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats is largely attended to. The culture of the vine has recently been increasing, and the wines, which are characterized by a mildness of flavor, are in good demand. The gardens and orchards supply abundance of fruits, especially almonds and walnuts; and the keeping of bees is common throughout the country. A greater proportion of Baden than of any other of the South German states is occupied by forests. In these the predominant species are the fir and pine, but many others, such as the chestnut, are well represented. A third, at least, of the annual supply of timber is exported, the chief consumer being Holland, though of late years Paris has derived a considerable supply from this

source.

The manufactures of Baden were formerly very insignificant, but have greatly increased since its accession to the Zollverein in 1835. They are, however, chiefly confined to iron and hardware goods, and the spinning and weaving of cotton. The latter industry is principally carried on at Ettlingen, Offenburg, St. Blaise, Zell, Schopfheim; Manheim has an extensive manufacture of mirrors, and Carlsruhe of machines; while Pforzheim is famous for its production of jewelry and goldsmiths' work. Beet-root sugar is manufactured at Waghäusel more largely than anywhere else in Germany. Paper, leather, and tobacco are also important objects of industry. The inhabitants of the Black Forest have long been celebrated for their dexterity in the manufacture of wooden ornaments and toys, watches, clocks, musical boxes, organs, &c. Of clocks alone about 600,000 are made every year.

The exports of Baden, which coincide largely with the industries just mentioned, are of considerable importance,

but the bulk of its trade consists in the transit of goods. The country is well furnished with roads and railways, the greater proportion of the latter being in the hands of the state. A line runs the whole length of the land, for the most part parallel with the Rhine, while branches cross obliquely from east to west.

The educational institutions of Baden are numerous aud flourishing, and public instruction is largely subsidized by the Government. There are two universities, the Protestant one at Heidelberg, founded in 1386, and the Catholic one at Freiburg, founded in 1457. The library at Heidelberg numbers 150,000 volumes, and that at Freiburg 100,000, while there is another of almost equal size at Carlsruhe. There are also lyceums at Carlsruhe, Constance, Freiburg, Heidelberg, Manheim, Rastadt, and Wertheim; several gymnasiums; normal schools at Carlsruhe, Ettlingen, and Meersburg, besides upwards of 2000 common schools established throughout the country. There is an institution in Pforzheim for the deaf and dumb, and one in Freiburg for the blind. The Polytechnic school at Carlsruhe is among the most efficient institutions of the kind in Germany. The preparatory course extends over three years, and includes French, German, English, special history, mathematics, drawing, modelling, chemistry, mineralogy and geology, mechanics, &c. The special courses are engineering, architecture, forestry, chemistry,, mechanics, commerce, and post-office service, and extend over from one to four years. The ducal family of Baden belong to the Protestant section of the Church, but the majority of the population are Roman Catholics. The returns of the census of 1871 are as follows:-Catholics, 942,560; Protestants, 491,008; other sects, 2265; and Jews, 25,703. The district where the Roman Catholic preponderance was greatest was Constance, while the Protestants were slightly more numerous in the district of Manheim.

The government of Baden is an hereditary monarchy, with the executive power vested in the grand duke, and the legislative authority in a Parliament consisting of two Chambers. The upper Chamber is composed of all the princes of the reigning line who are of age, the chiefs of ten noble families, the possessors of hereditary landed estates worth £25,000, the Roman Catholic archbishop of Freiburg, the president of the Protestant Church, a deputy from each of the universities, and eight nominees of the duke. The lower Chamber consists of 63 repre sentatives, of whom 22 are elected by the Burgesses of certain towns, and 41 by the inhabitants of the bailiwicks. The parliamentary candidate must possess tax-paying property of the value of 10,000 florins (£833), or derive a salary of at least £125 from a public office. Every citizen, if neither criminal nor pauper, has the right of voting, but only in the choice of deputy-electors, by whom the real election of the representatives is decided. The members of the lower House are elected for eight years, and meetings of Parliament must take place every two years.

The budgets are granted by Parliament for a term of two years. In 1875 the ordinary expenses were rated at £1,572,959, and the ordinary receipts at £1,557,108. The total public debt on the 1st of January, 1874, was £12,985,067.

Since the organization of 1864 courts are held at Constance, Freiburg, Offenburg, Carlsruhe, and Manheim, the supreme court being in the city last named. Manheim is also the seat of the central commission for the navigation of the Rhine.

The ducal family of Baden traces its descent from the counts of Zähringen, who flourished in the 11th century, and derived their title from what is now a little town to the north of Freiburg. Hermann I., the second son of Count Berthold I., took the title of Margrave of Hochberg in Breisgau, and was succeeded in 1074 by his son Hermann II., who was the first to style himself margrave of Baden. On the death of the Margrave Christopher in 1527, his estates were divided among his three sons, but one of them having died soon after, the two survivors became the sole inheritors, and founded the two lines of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach. The former of these, which produced one of the most famous generals of the 17th century, became extinct by the death of Augustus George in 1771, and its possessions were united with Baden-Durlach under Charles Frederick. By the treaty of Lunéville in 1801, Baden acquired a considerable addition of territory; in 1803 the margrave received the title of