Corvo and

might be raised to a considerable extent. The exports | burning of bricks. The chief town of St. George St. George, consist of wine, fruit, and provisions, the most important is Velas, and the population 18,000. trade being in oranges. Foreign intercourse was at one time confined rigorously to Lisbon; but the inhabitants now trade directly with England, America, and other countries. The exports during 1872 at the port of St. Michael's were of the value of £85,279, and the imports amounted to £91,943.

The principal town in the island is Ponta-Delgada, which contains 15,520 inhabitants. It is built with tolerable regularity, the streets being straight and broad. The religious edifices are numerous and elegant. The harbor receives only small vessels; those of larger size must anchor in an open roadstead, which cannot be occupied during the prevalence of southerly gales. A breakwater and harbor of refuge have been in process of construction for a number of years; and a light-house is being built at the north-east end of the island. The other towns are Villa Franca, Ribeira Grande, Alagoa, Agoa de Paō, &c. St. Mary is a small island immediately adjaSt. Mary. cent to St. Michael's, through the medium of which its trade is conducted, as it has no good harbors of its own. It has an area of 36 square miles, and produces wheat in abundance, of which a considerable quantity is exported. Various volcanic rocks are the predominant formations, but beds of limestone also occur, giving rise to numerous stalactite grottoes all over the island. Population from 7000 to 8000.

Terceira (so called as being the third in order Terceira. of discovery) is smaller than St. Michael's, but being placed in a more central position with respect to the other islands, has been chosen as the seat of government. The port of Angra, protected by Mt. Brazil, is also superior to any of those in St. Michael's. This island does not exhibit nearly the same extensive traces of volcanic action; and the summits of its mountains are generally level. It abounds in grain and cattle; but the wines are inferior, and fruits are raised merely for internal consumption. The number of inhabitants is estimated at 50,000. Fayal. Fayal (so called from the extreme abundance of the faya, an indigenous shrub) is the most frequented of all the Azores, after St. Michael's, as it has one of the best harbors in the islands, and lies directly in the track of vessels that are crossing the Atlantic in any direction. Its principal town is Villa de Horta, with a population of 7636. The town is defended by two castles and a wall, both in decay, and serving rather for show than strength. The city contains two convents for monks and three for nuns, with eight churches. The bay is two miles in length and three-quarters of a mile in breadth, and the depth of water from 6 to 20 fathoms. Though a good roadstead, it is not altogether free from danger in S.S.W. and S.E. winds. The women of this island manufacture fine lace from the agave thread, and till recently produced large quantities of open-work stockings. They also execute carvings in snow-white fig-tree pith, and carry on the finer kinds of basket-making. A small valley, called Flemengos, still perpetuates the name of the Flemish settlers, who have left their mark on the physical appearance of the inhabitants. Population, 26,264.

Pico.

A considerable quantity of wine used to be exported from Fayal under the name of Fayal wine, which was really the produce of Pico, one of the most remarkable of the Azores. This island is composed of an immense conical mountain, rising to the height of 7613 feet, and bearing every trace of volcanic formation. The soil consists entirely of pulverized lava. All the lower parts of the mountain used to be in the highest state of cultivation, and covered with vine and orange plantations. But in 1852 the vines were attacked by the Oidium fungus and completely destroyed, while the orange-trees suffered almost as much from the Coccus Hesperidum. The people were consequently reduced to want, and forced to emigrate in great numbers. The planting of fig-trees and apricots lleviated the evil, and after a time many of the emigrants returned. Pico also produces a valuable species of wood resembling, and equal in quality to, mahogany. Population, 24,000.

Graciosa and St. George are two small islands,

Graciosa. situated between Fayal and Terceira. Graciosa, as its name imports, is chiefly noted for the extreme beauty of its aspect and scenery. The chief town is Sta. Cruz, and the total population 8000. The only manufacture is the

The two small islands of Corvo and Flores seem but imperfectly to belong to the group. Flores. They lie also out of the usual track of navigators; but to those who, missing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good shelter in its numerous bays. Its poultry is excellent; and the cattle are numerous, but small. It derives its name from the abundance of the flowers that find shelter in its deep ravines. Population of Corvo, 1000, and of Flores, 10,508.

See Hartmann's Edrisi; Voyages des Hollandois, tome i.; Astley's Collection, vol. i.; Masson's "Account of St. Miguel," in Phil. Trans., 1778; Cook's Second Voyage; Adanson's Voyage to Senegal; History of the Azores, London, 1813, and the review of this work in the Quarterly for 1814; Boid's Azores ; London Geographical Journal; A Winter in the Azores, by J. and H. Bullar, 1841; Hartung's Die Azoren in Aeusseren Erscheinung u. Geognost. Natur, Leipsic, 1860; Morelet's Iles Açores, 1860; Drouet's Elémens de la Faune Açoréenne, 1861; Drouet's Mollusques Marins des Iles Açores, 1858; Drouet's Lettres Açoréennes, 1862; Ramos (Dr. A. G.), Noticia do Archipelago dos Açores, &c., 1871; Godman's Nat. Hist. of the Azores, 1870; Voyages aux Açores," by Fouqué in the Revue des Deux Mondes, 1873; "Allgemeine Charac. des Klimas" in Hydro. Descr. de l'Archip. des Açores, 1851, translated by Totten, 1874. Mitth. vom Hydr. Bur. der Admir., Berlin, 1873; Kerhallet's

AZOTUS, the name given by Greek and Roman writers to Ashdod, or Eshdod, an ancient city of Palestine, now represented by a few remains in the little village of Esdud, in the pashalik of Acre. It was situated a short distance inland from the Mediterranean, on the usual military route between Syria and Egypt, about 18 geographical miles N.E. of Gaza. As one of the five chief cities of the Philistines, and the seat of the worship of Dagon, it maintained, down even to the days of the Maccabees, a vigorous, though somewhat intermittent, independence against the power of the Israelites, by whom it was nominally assigned to the territory of Judah. In spite of its being dismantled by Uzziah, and somewhat later, in 731 B.C., captured by the Assyrians, it was strong enough in the next century to resist the assaults of Psammetichus for twenty-nine years. Restored by the Roman Gabinius from the ruins in which it had been left by the Jewish wars, it was presented by Augustus to Salome, the sister of Herod. It became the seat of a bishop early in the Christian era, but seems never to have attained any importance as a town.

AZPEITIA, a town of Spain in the province of Guipuzcoa, on the left bank of the Urola, 15 miles S.W. of San Sebastian. The neighboring country is fertile, and quarries of marble are wrought in the mountains. During the Carlist movement in 1870-74, Azpeitia was the seat of the Guipuzcoan Diputacion, or court for the management of the war; and gunpowder, cartridges, and cannon were manufactured in the town. The famous monastery of San Ignacio, dedicated to Loyola, about a mile distant, was also appropriated for military purposes. Population stated at 2335.

AZTECS, the native name of one of the tribes that occupied the table-land of Mexico on the arrival of th Spaniards in America. It has been very frequently employed as equivalent to the collective national title of Nahuatlecas, or Mexicans. The Aztecs came, according to native tradition, from a country to which they gave the name of Aztlan, usually supposed to lie towards the N.W., but the satisfactory localization of it is one of the greatest difficulties in Mexican history. The date of the exodus from Aztlan is equally undetermined, being fixed by various authorities in the 11th and by others in the 12th century. One Mexican manuscript gives a date equivalent to 1164 A.D. They gradually increased their influence among other tribes, until, by union with the Toltecs, who occupied the table-land before them, they extended their empire to an area of from 18,000 to 20,000 square leagues. The researches of Humboldt gave the first clear insight into the early periods of their history. See MEXICO.

AZUNI, DOMENICO ALBERTO, a distinguished jurist and writer on international law, was born at Sassari, in Sardinia, in 1749. He studied law at Sassari and Turin, and in 1782 was made judge of the consulate at Nice. In 1786-88 he published his Dizionario Universale Ragionato della Giurisprudenza Mercantile. In 1795 appeared his systematic work on the maritime law of Europe, Sistema Universale

dei Principii del Diritto Maritimo dell' Europa, of which a he was invited to Sardinia by Victor Emmanuel I., and second edition was demanded in the following year. A appointed judge of the consulate at Cagliari, and director French translation by Digeon was published in 1798, and in of the university library. He resided at Cagliari till his 1805 Azuni recast the work, and translated it into French. death in 1827. Besides the works above mentioned, Azuni In 1806 he was appointed one of the French commission wrote numerous pamphlets and minor works, chiefly on engaged in drawing up a general code of commercial law, maritime law, an important treatise on the origin and and in the following year he proceeded to Genoa as pres- progress of maritime law (Paris, 1810), and an historical, ident of the court of appeal. After the fall of Napoleon geographical, and political account of Sardinia (1st ed in 1814, Azuni lived for a time in retirement at Genoa, till | 1799; 2d, much enlarged, 1802).

B

B

of the 3d and 4th centuries after Christ, when the symbol represents original b; thus sivi stands for sibi, livido for libido (see Corssen, Aussprache, &c., i. 131); and still more frequently b appears for v, as bixit for vixit. The change would be inconceivable if the symbol v in these cases had had the same sound as with us, that of a labiodental. The same indistinctness appeared locally in dialects, as is shown by Martial's well-known epigram

"Haud temere antiquas mutat Vasconia voces, Cui nil est aliud vivere quam bibere."

IS the second symbol of all European alphabets except | Greek. The same confusion is found in Latin inscriptions those derived from the Cyrillic original (see ALPHABET, vol. i. p. 539), such as the Russian. In these a modified form, in which only the top of the upper loop appears, stands as the second letter, with the value of the original sound b; whilst the old symbol B comes third with the phonetic value v or w. In Egypt this letter was originally a hieroglyph for a crane, and afterwards represented also the sound b. The symbol and its phonetic value were borrowed by the Phoenicians, but not its name, as we infer from finding it called in Hebrew beth, i. e., a house. In its oldest known Phoenician form the upper loop only exists in a more or less rounded shape. In different alphabets even the upper loop was gradually opened, so that in the square Hebrew the original form can no longer be detected. The Greeks, when they borrowed it from the Phoenicians, closed up the lower loop as well as the upper for convenience of writing. Sometimes the loops were angular, but more generally they were rounded. There is little variation of the form, except in the old alphabets of Corinth and Corcyra, where the original is hardly recognizable. In old Latin both the rounded and the pointed loops appear.

The original sound which this symbol represented, and which it still represents in most European languages, is a closed labial, i. e., one in which perfect closure of the lips is necessary, the sound being heard as the lips open. Like all closed sounds, it is not capable of prolongation. It differs from p, which is also a closed labial, as a sonant from a surd. A sonant is heard when the breath, as it passes through the glottis, is vocalized by the tension or approximation of its edges. When there is no such action of the glottis, mere breath alone passes through; but the explosiveness of the breath when the vocal organs are opened produces a sound, and this is called a surd. The vocal organs are in precisely the same position for p as for b; but in producing p they act upon breath only; in producing b they articulate voice.

In the earliest stage to which we can trace back the language spoken by the forefathers of the Indo-European nations, it cannot be certainly proved that the sound b was ever heard at the beginning of a word. Perhaps in this position it may have been sounded indistinctly as a labial v. In English and all Low German languages p has taken the place of original b, which is preserved in Greek and Latin; thus the b in Kávvaß is replaced by p in English "hemp." We do not certainly know the reason of this shifting of sound, which affects all momentary sounds, and which is commonly known in England by the name of "Grimm's law." By the same law English b has taken the place of original bh. Thus our "beech" stands for original bhaga," which is represented, according to the phonetic laws of the languages, by Greek onyós and Latin "fagus." In the middle of a Latin word, and consequently generally in the languages derived from the Latin, b represents orig

inal bh.

There is a tendency among some peoples to allow the b sound to pass into a v, in which the lips are not firmly closed, and so the sound is capable of prolongation, because it does not consist (as b proper does) in the momentary escape of the voice after the lips have been compressed and then opened. This v, in the production of which the lips alone are concerned, must be carefully distinguished from our English v, which is the result of pressure between the upper teeth and lower lip; it is more like our English w. It is the sound which has taken the place of b in modern

BAADER, FRANZ XAVER VON, an eminent German philosopher and theologian, born 27th March, 1765, at Munich, was the third son of F. P. Baader, court-physician to the elector of Bavaria. His two elder brothers were both distinguished, the eldest, Clemens, as an author, the second, Joseph, as an engineer. Franz when young was extremely delicate, and from his seventh to his eleventh year was afflicted with a species of mental weakness, which singularly enough disappeared entirely when he was introduced for the first time to the mathematical diagrams of Euclid. His progress thenceforth was very rapid. At the age of sixteen he entered the university of Ingolstädt, where he studied medicine, and graduated in 1782. He then spent two years at Vienna, and returning home, for a short time assisted his father in his extensive practice. This life he soon found unsuited for him, and he decided on becoming a mining engineer. He studied under Werner at Frieburg, travelled through several of the mining districts in North Germany, and for four years, 1792-1796, resided in England. There he became acquainted with the works of Jacob Böhme, and at the same time was brought into contact with the rationalistic 18th-century ideas of Hume, Hartley, and Godwin, which were extremely distasteful to him. For Baader throughout his whole life had the deepest sense of the reality of religious truths, and could find no satisfaction in mere reason or philos ophy. "God is my witness," he writes in his journal of 1786, "how heartily and how often I say with Pascal, that with all our speculation and demonstration we remain without God in the world." Modern philosophy he thought essentially atheistic in its tendencies, and he soon grew to be dissatisfied with the Kantian system, by which he had been at first attracted. Particularly displeasing to him was the ethical autonomy, or the posi tion that man had in himself a rule of action, that duty contained no necessary reference to God. This Baader called "a morality for devils," and passionately declared that if Satan could again come upon earth, he would assume the garb of a professor of moral philosophy. The mystical, but profoundly religious, speculations of Eckhart, St. Martin, and above all of Böhme, were more in harmony with his mode of thought, and to them he devoted himself. In 1796 he returned from England, and in his passage through Hamburg became acquainted with Jacobi, the Faith philosopher, with whom he was for many years on terms of close friendship. He now for the first time learned something of Schelling, and the works he published during this period were manifestly influenced by that philosopher. Yet Baader is no disciple of Schelling, and probably, in the way of affecting the future course of Schelling's thought, gave out more than he received. Their personal friendship continued till about the year 1822, when Baader's vehement denunciation of modern

philosophy in his letter to the Czar of Russia entirely | far as He is absolute spirit, and only in so far as the primalienated Schelling.

While prosecuting his philosophical researches, Baader had continued to apply himself diligently to his profession of engineer. He gained a prize of 12,000 gulden (about £1000) for his new method of employing Glauber's salts instead of potash in the making of glass. From 1817 to 1820 he held the post of superintendent of mines, and was raised to the rank of nobility for his services. He retired from business in 1820, and soon after published one of the best of his works, Fermenta Cognitionis, 6 pts., 1822-25, in which he combats modern philosophy, and recommends the study of J. Böhme. In 1826, when the new university was opened at Munich, he was appointed professor of philosophy and speculative theology. Some of the lectures delivered there he published under the title, Spekulate Dogmatik, 4 pts., 1827-1836. In 1838 he opposed the interference in civil matters of the Roman Catholic Church, to which he belonged, and in consequence was, during the last three years of life, interdicted from lecturing on the philosophy of religion. He died 23d May,

1841.

itive will cognizes or is conscious of itself can it become spirit at all. But, in this very cognition of self is involved the distinction of knower and known, producer and produced, from which proceeds the power to become spirit. This immanent process of self-consciousness, wherein indeed a trinity of persons is not given but only rendered possible, is mirrored in, and takes place through, the eternal and impersonal idea or wisdom of God, which exists beside, though not distinct from, the primitive will. Concrete reality or personality is given to this divine Ternar, as Baader calls it, through nature, the principle of selfhood, of individual being, which is eternally and necessarily produced by God. Only in nature is the trinity of persons attained. These processes, it must be noticed, are not to be conceived as successive, or as taking place in time; they are to be looked at sub specie æternitatis, as the necessary elements or moments in the self-evolution of the divine Being. Nor is nature to be confounded with created substance, or with matter as it exists in space and time; it is pure non-being, the mere otherness, alteritas, of God-his shadow, desire, want, or desiderium sui, as it is called by mystical writers. Creation is itself a free and non-temporal act of God's love and will, and on this account its reality cannot be speculatively deduced, but must be accepted as an historic fact. Created beings were originally of three orders-the intelligent, or angels; the non-intelligent natural existences; and man, who mediated between these two orders. Intelligent beings are endowed with freedom; it is possible, but not necessary, that they should fall. Hence the fact of the fall is not a speculative, but an historic truth. The angels fell through pride-through desire to raise themselves to equality with God; man fell by lowering himself to the level of nature. Only after the fall of man begins the creation of space, time, and matter, or of the world as we now know it; and the motive of this creation was the desire to afford man an opportunity for taking advantage of the scheme of redemption, for bringing forth in purity the image of God according to which he has been fashioned. The physical philosophy and anthrovarious works, is but little instructive, and coincides in the main with the semi-intelligible utterances of Böhme. In nature and in man he finds traces of the dire effects of sin, which has corrupted both, and has destroyed their natural harmony. As regards ethics, it has been already pointed out that Baader rejects the Kantian or any autonomic system of morals. Not obedience to a moral law, but realization in ourselves of the divine life, through and in which we have our being, is the true ethical end. But man has lost the power to effect this by himself; he has alienated himself from God, and therefore no ethical theory which neglects the facts of sin and redemption is satisfac tory or even possible. The history of mar. and of humanity is the history of the redeeming love of God. The means whereby we put ourselves so in relation with Christ as to receive from Him his healing virtue, are chiefly prayer and the sacraments of the church, though it must be noted that mere works are never sufficient. With regard to man in his social relations there are two great institutions or systems of rules under which, or in connection with which, he stands. One is temporal, natural, and limited-the state; the other is eternal, cosmopolitan, and universal— the church. In the state two things are requisite: first, common submission to the ruler, which can only be secured or given when the state is Christian, for God alone is the true ruler of men; and, secondly, inequality of rank, without which there can be no organization. A despotism of mere power and liberalism, which naturally produces socialism, are equally objectionable. The ideal state is a perfectly organized church society, a civil community ruled by a universal or Catholic church, and the principles of this church are equally distinct from mere passive pietism, or faith which will know nothing, and from the Protestant doctrine, which is the very radicalism of reason.

It is extremely difficult to give in moderate compass an adequate view of Baader's philosophy; for he himself generally either gave expression to his deepest thoughts in brief, obscure aphorisms, or veiled them under mystical symbols and analogies. In this respect his style of exposition is not undeserving of Zeller's strictures (Ges. d. deut. Phil., 732, 736). Further, he has no systematic works; his doctrines were for the most part thrown out in short detached essays, in comments on the writings of Böhme and St. Martin, or in his extensive correspondence and journals. For his own part, he was distinctly of opinion that philosophy is not as yet capable of reduction to scientific form, and it would consequently be an error to demand from him a rigidly coherent body of truth. At the same time, the general tendency of his thought is very apparent, and there are some salient points which stand out with a clearness sufficient to render possible an outline of his whole course of speculation. In the mode in which he approaches the problems of philosophy, Baader is en-pology which Baader, in connection with this, unfolds in tirely opposed to the modern speculative spirit, which, beginning with Descartes, has endeavored to erect a rational or coherent system on the basis of self-consciousness alone, and has protested against the presupposition of anything which can fetter reason, and against the acceptation of any truth which cannot be rationally construed. He starts from the position that human reason is in a corrupt condition, and by itself can never reach the end it aims at, and maintains that we cannot throw aside the presuppositions of faith, church, and tradition. His point of view may, with some truth, be described as Scholasticism; for, like the great scholastic doctors, he believes that theology and philosophy are not opposed sciences, but that reason has to make clear the truths given by authority and revelation. But in his attempt to draw still closer the realms of nature and of grace, of faith and knowledge, of human thought and divine reason, he approaches more nearly to the mysticism of Eckhart, Paracelsus, and Böhme. All selfconsciousness, he thinks, is at the same time God-consciousness; our knowledge is never mere scientia, it is invariably con-scientia-a knowing with, consciousness of, or participation in God. Of this knowledge, as of knowledge in general, there are three grades:-(1.) Where the thing known impresses itself upon us without or against the will, where the knowledge is necessary, such, e.g., is the knowledge that God is; (2.) Where the thing known is cognized by an act on our part, where knowledge is free-such, e.g., is the voluntary belief or trust in God; (3.) Where the thing known enters into, and forms part of, the very process of knowing, such is the speculative knowledge of God, wherein we recognize that without God we are not, and that we know Him only in and through His knowledge of us. The notion of God is thus the fundamental thought of Baader; his philosophy is in all essentials a theosophy, and its first great problem is to determine accurately the nature of the divine Being. Now God, who is, according to Baader, the primary will which lies at the basis of all things, is not to be conceived as mere abstract Being, substantia, but as everlasting process, activity, actus. Of this everlasting process, this self-generation of God, we may distinguish two aspects-the immanent or esoteric, and the emanent or exoteric. God has reality only in so

Baader is, without doubt, the greatest speculative theologian of modern Catholicism, and his influence has extended itself even beyond the precincts of his own church. The great work of Rothe, Theologische Ethik, is thoroughly impregnated with his spirit; and, not to mention others, J. Müller, Christ. Lehre v. der Sünde, and Martensen, Christ. Dogmatik, show evident marks of his influence.

His works have been collected and published by a number of