He sent an army into Spain, and entered into leagues with the dukes of Savoy and Parma and the United Provinces for attacking the Spanish power in Italy and the Netherlands. These projects did not meet with success, and the war was for a time carried into the French territories. In the meantime the Swedes, under General Baner, gained a brilliant victory over the Saxons and imperialists at Wittstock (4th October, 1636). The emperor died on the 15th February, 1637, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III. The war was carried on for eleven years longer; and the success which at first was with the imperialists, after a time came round to their adversaries, till at length the emperor, pressed on all sides and deserted by his allies, was glad to agree to terms of peace. By the peace of Westphalia, signed 24th October, 1648, France acquired Alsace; Sweden got Upper Pomerania, the Isle of Rugen, and some other territory; the sovereignty and independence of the different states was recognized; the Calvinists were placed on the same footing as the Lutherans; and the independence of the United Provinces and the Swiss Confederation was acknowledged.

Ferdinand III. died in 1657, and was succeeded by his son Leopold I. This prince, by his harsh treatment of the Hungarians, drove that people into revolt; and they, being unable to cope with the power of the empire singlehanded, called in the aid of the Turks, who, under Kara Mustapha in 1683, besieged Vienna, which was only saved by an army of Poles and Germans under John Sobieski. The imperial army then reduced the whole of Hungary into subjection, and united to it Transylvania, which had been hitherto governed by its own princes; and the whole was declared to be a hereditary kingdom. In 1699 Turkey, after being defeated in several sanguinary engagements by the celebrated general Prince Eugene, was compelled by the peace of Carlowitz to cede to Hungary the country lying between the Danube and the Theiss. Previous to his troubles with Hungary and Turkey, Leopold had lent his aid in 1672 to the Dutch in their struggle against the ambitious designs of France. This was brought to a close by the peace of Nimeguen in 1678; but the conflict broke out afresh the following year, when the English also came forward and contributed largely both in troops and money. The chief scenes of warfare were the Netherlands and the banks of the Rhine. At last in 1697 came the peace of Ryswick, which left the contending parties in nearly the same relative positions as at the beginning of the contest. The allies had, however, the satisfaction of having compelled the French king to stop short in his schemes of aggrandizement.

War of the Succession.

The death of Charles II. of Spain in 1700, without leaving issue, led to what is known as the War of the Succession. Louis XIV. had married the eldest sister of the late king, but she had by solemn covenant renounced her right to the Spanish crown. The second sister had married the Emperor Leopold, and she had made no such renunciation, but her daughter had, who was married to the elector of Bavaria. Leopold had two sons by a second marriage, and now claimed the crown for the younger of these, on the ground of his mother being an aunt of the deceased king. Intrigues had been carried on by the several parties concerned for some time before the king's death, and he had been induced to make a secret will, in which he named Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., as his successor Leopold, how ever, was by no means inclined to depart from what he considered his rights, and the other states of Europe looked with jealousy on the prospect of a union of France and Spain under a Bourbon dynasty. An alliance was accordingly formed by Austria with England and Holland against France, with which power on the other hand Bavaria allied herself. The emperor despatched an army into Italy under Prince Eugene, to take possession of the Spanish territories in that country; while the English and Dutch united their forces under Marlborough. The former experienced a good deal of hard fighting, but effected little of consequence, while the latter busied himself in taking one after another of the French strongholds in the Netherlands. At length the two generals combined their forces and met the united army of their enemies at Blenheim. The latter numbered about 56,000 men and occupied a strong position, while the number of the former was about 52,000. The fight commenced by Marlborough leading the right wing against the French, while Eugene with the

left wing advanced against the Bavarians. The battle was long and fierce, the assailants being repeatedly driven back by a most terrible fire from the enemy's artillery. At length victory declared for the allied English and Austrian armies (13th August, 1704). About 10,000 of the French and Bavarians fell on the field, and nearly 13,000 were made prisoners, among whom was the commander of the French army, Marshal Tallard. The elector of Bavaria was compelled to cross the Rhine with the French, and his territory was occupied by the imperialists. The following year the emperor died, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Joseph. The war was continued with vigor, but for a time nothing of importance was anywhere effected. France now directed her chief attention to the conquest of the Netherlands, and sent into that country a magnificent army under the command of Marshal Villeroi. But this general was no match for Marlborough; and in the battle of Ramillies (23d May, 1706) he was totally defeated with a loss of about 13,000 men. Prince Eugene's efforts in Italy were also this year crowned with much success. After a memorable march of more than 200 miles, he suddenly appeared before Turin, which was then closely besieged by the enemy. Having effected a junction with the duke of Savoy, he attacked the French lines (7th September), and though repeatedly driven back, at length succeeded in totally routing the enemy. The French general, Count Marsin, was wounded, taken prisoner, and died the following day. The French power in Northern Italy was thus shattered, and soon after both French and Spaniards were driven out of the country. The like suc cess attended the efforts of Marlborough in the Nether lands, where he took possession of every place of te After Eugene had settled affairs in Italy, he again formed a junction with Marlborough in the Netherlands, and on 11th June, 1708, they attacked and routed the French under Vendôme at Oudenarde. France now made overtures for peace; but these being rejected, she sent a new army into the field, under the command of Marshal Villars. He was attacked by the two victorious generals in his entrenchments at Malplaquet (11th September, 1709) and totally defeated. France again made proposals for peace, but these meeting with no better success, the war was continued. The emperor died on 17th April, 1711, and his successor being his brother, the Archduke Charles, who laid claim to the Spanish crown, this event contributed not a little to restore peace. The prospect of the union on one head of the crowns of Austria and Spain did not accord with the views of those who had been hitherto supporting the claims of Austria, and the transfer of Spain to a grandson of Louis XIV. appeared to them the less dangerous alternative of the two. This, joined to the change of ministry in England, and the removal of Marlborough from the command, together with the im patience of the Dutch under so long and so burdensome a war, led to the peace of Utrecht, which was signed 11th April, 1713. Austria continued the war for some time longer, but the next year agreed to substantially the same terms at Baden. By this treaty France engaged that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united, and that no part of the Spanish Netherlands should ever be transferred to her; she also ceded to England Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and St. Kitt's, and agreed to destroy the fortifications of Dunkirk; Spain gave up her possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy to Austria (who, on her part, renounced her claim to the Spanish succession), and ceded Gibraltar and Minorca to England; the Dutch received a small accession of territory; and the duke of Savoy obtained Sicily, with the title of kingafterwards (1720) exchanged for the island of Sardinia. The Austrian monarchy now embraced about 190,000 square miles of territory, with nearly 29,000,000 of inhab itants. Its annual revenue was between 13,000,000 and 14,000,000 florins, and its army consisted of 130,000 men.

Austria next became involved in a war with the Turks, and in 1716 Prince Eugene set out at the head of an army against them. The result was a series of splendid successes, which led to a peace signed at Passarowitz (1718), by which Austria received a considerable accession of terri tory. Disaffection still continued to subsist between Spain and Austria, which led to repeated negotiations on the part of the other powers to preserve peace. Charles being with out heirs-male, was desirous of securing the succession to his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, and with this view he

framed the celebrated Pragmatic Sanction, and it became his great object to get the assent of the other powers to this arrangement. England and almost all the other powers, except France, Spain, and Sardinia, acceded to it in 1731. In 1733 the emperor became involved in a war with France on behalf of Augustus III. of Saxony, who had been elected king of Poland. France supported the claims of Stanislaus Leczinski, and received the aid of Spain and Sardinia. The war was carried on principally in Italy, where Austria was driven out of most of her possessions, and was glad to sue for peace. By this treaty Augustus was confirmed on the throne of Poland; but Austria was obliged to cede to Stanislaus the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, to be afterwards transferred to France; Don Carlos was placed on the throne of the Two Sicilies, and the grand duchy of Tuscany was bestowed on the duke of Lorraine, the emperor receiving as compensation Parma and Placentia; and France, and afterwards Spain and Sardinia, acceded to the Pragmatic Sanction. War again broke out with the Turks, and Prince Eugene being now no more, the Austrians were repeatedly beaten and expelled from one stronghold after another, till, by the peace of Belgrade (1739), the emperor was compelled to yield up almost all that the arms of Eugene had formerly gained for him. The emperor died on the 20th October, 1740, and his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, who was married to the duke of Lorraine or Lothringen (afterwards archduke of Tuscany), assumed the government. Immediately counterclaims were advanced on all sides. The elector of Bavaria claimed to be rightful heir to the kingdom of Bohemia; the elector of Saxony and king of Poland, and also the king of Spain, claimed the entire succession; the king of Sardinia laid claim to the duchy of Milan, and Frederick II. of Prussia to the province of Silesia. France espoused the cause of Bavaria, while England alone came forward to the assistance of the queen, and the Hungarians, now united and loyal, willingly recruited her armies. Aided by France and Saxony, the elector of Bavaria took possession of Bohemia, and was proclaimed king in 1741, and the following year he was elected emperor under the title of Charles VII. The king of Prussia marched suddenly into Silesia and took possession of that country. The elector of Bavaria, aided by French troops, next invaded Austria, and even threatened Vienna. The queen fled to Presburg and convoked the Hungarian diet. She appeared in the midst of the assembly with her infant son Joseph in her arms, and appealed to them for protection and help. A burst of enthusiasm followed, and a powerful Hungarian army was speedily at her service. The French and Bavarians were soon driven out of the archduchy. A battle was fought between the Austrians under the prince of Lorraine and the Prussians under Frederick, at Czaslau (17th May, 1742), in which the former were defeated, and this was followed by the peace of Breslau (11th June), by which Prussia acquired possession of Upper and Lower Silesia (excepting the towns of Troppau and Jägerndorf, and the mountains of Silesia) and the county of Glatz. Austria now turned her arms against the French and Bavarians, the former of whom were driven out of the country. In 1744 the king of Prussia, jealous of the success attending the Austrians, again took the field against them in support of the emperor. He marched into Bohemia and took Prague, but subsequently was forced to retreat; and the death of the emperor Charles on 20th January, 1745, changed the aspect of affairs. Maria Theresa's husband was in September elected emperor under the title of Francis I., and after some more fighting, a peace was concluded with Prussia at Dresden, by which the king was confirmed in the possession of Silesia. The war with France was prosecuted for some time longer in the Netherlands and in Italy with varying success, but ultimately peace was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, in October, 1748. Austria gave up the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla to Don Philip, son of the king of Spain, and several districts of Milan to Sardinia; Prussia was confirmed in the possession of Silesia and Glatz; while Maria Theresa was recognized as rightful monarch of Austria. After having acquired peace, and been thus confirmed in her possessions, her great desire was to recover Silesia from Frederick, whose conduct towards her had sunk deep into her heart. She directed her attention to strengthening and improving her army, and to forming alliances with the other states against the Prussian king, particularly with Russia and Saxony.

Seven

1757.

In 1755 war broke out in North America between France and England, and in view of its becoming more general England solicited the aid of Austria, but without success This naturally led to a union between England and Prussia, while France allied herself with Austria and Russia. In July, 1756, Frederick despatched a messenger to Vienna to ascertain the meaning of Years' War the large forces assembled in Bohemia and Moravia. Receiving an evasive answer, he at once marched an army of 60,000 men into Saxony, took Dresden, and made himself master of the country, the Saxon army of only about 17,000 men being shut up in a strong position, but ill provisioned, between Pirna and Königstein. An Austrian army, under the command of Marshal Browne, advanced from Bohemia to the relief of Saxony, but was met by Frederick. A battle took place at Lowositz (1st October), which, though not decisive, ended in the retreat of the Austrians; and the famished Saxon army, after an ineffectual attempt to effect a retreat to Bohemia, laid down their arms. This ended the first campaign, and both sides did their utmost to prepare for renewing hostilities the following year. The empress strengthened her forces in Bohemia, and the imperial diet conceded an army of 60,000 men to assist her. France engaged to send an army of 80,000 or 100,000 men into Germany, and Russia set in motion an army of 100,000 men against Prussia. In all, the allies were estimated to muster about 500,000 men, while Frederick could scarcely raise 200,000 of his own, his auxiliaries (English, Hanoverians, &c.) probably amounting to about 40,000 more. Frederick renewed the war by marching an army into Bohemia, where, on 6th May, he gained a victory over the Austrians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, in the neighborhood of Prague, and then laid siege to that city. General Daun, at the head of an Austrian army, advanced to the relief of the city, and the king set out to meet him. The encounter took place at Kolin (18th June), and the Prussians, being much inferior in numbers, were beaten with great slaughter. Frederick was compelled at once to raise the siege and to evacuate Bohemia. In honor of this victory the empress instituted the military order of Maria Theresa. It had also the effect of inspiring the allies with fresh courage. The Russians invaded the kingdom of Prussia; the Swedes entered Pomerania; and two French armies crossed the Rhine in order to attack Hesse and Hanover and then march into Prussia. One of these armies, under the command of Prince Soubise, advanced towards Thuringia, in order to form a junction with the imperial forces under the prince of Hildburghausen, while Marshal d'Estrées, who commanded the larger French army, entered Hanover, and through the incapacity of his opponent, gained an easy victory over the Anglo-Germanic army, under the duke of Cumberland, near Hastenbeck, on the Weser (26th July). The duke afterwards completed his disgrace by agreeing to disband his troops and give up Hanover, Hesse, Brunswick, and the whole country between the Weser and the Rhine to the French. The other French army effected a union with the imperial troops of Thuringia, and made preparations for driving the Prussians out of Saxony. Frederick, however, determined to meet them, and after a series of marches and countermarches the two armies came together near Rossbach. The Prussian army amounted to about 22,000 men, while that of the French and Austrians numbered nearly 60,000. Frederick's troops were encamped upon a height, and the allies, when they advanced to the attack, were suddenly met by such a tremendous fire that they were thrown into confusion and unable to recover themselves. In less than half an hour the day was decided (5th November, 1757). The allies had 1200 killed and more than 7000 taken prisoners, while the loss of the Prussians scarcely exceeded 500 in killed and wounded. At this time the imperialists had entered Silesia and there gained several advantages over the Prussians, who were at length driven to the walls of Breslau. Here a battle was fought (22d November) in which the Austrians were victorious, and the city itself soon after surrendered to the conquerors. Frederick now made what haste he could to retrieve his fortunes in this quarter, and met the Austrian army, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, in a plain near the village of Leuthen. The Austrians numbered about 80,000 men, while the Prus sians did not exceed 30,000, yet by the skilful disposal of his troops and the celerity of his movements Frederick

again gained a complete victory (5th December). The field was covered with slain, and it is estimated that about 20,000 surrendered themselves prisoners. Breslau was speedily retaken, and the Austrians driven out of Silesia. The English were very indignant at the treaty entered into by the duke of Cumberland, and another army was speedily raised and placed under the command of Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, who commenced the campaign of 1758 by suddenly attacking the French in their winter quarters. In a few weeks he succeeded in driving them out of the country, pursued them across the Rhine, and attacked them furiously at Crefeld, where they were completely routed.

1758.

While Field-Marshal Daun, who had received the command of the Austrian army, was waiting the attack of Frederick in Bohemia, the latter, by forced marches, entered Moravia and laid siege to Olmütz. The town, however, defended itself with the greatest bravery, and the Prussians were compelled to raise the siege. By this time, Daun having blocked up Frederick's retreat into Silesia, the Prussian army was marched suddenly northward into Bohemia, and attacked the Russians who had invaded Brandenburg. After a desperate battle the latter were defeated with great slaughter at Zorndorf (26th August) and compelled to retreat into Poland. Frederick now entered Saxony, where his brother Prince Henry was hard pressed by the Austrians. Thereupon Daun retired to a strong position in Lusatia, and Frederick took up a position near him, little thinking that Daun would attack him. Early in the morning of the 14th of October, however, the Austrians suddenly fell upon him at the village of Hochkirchen, and in the confusion and darkness the slaughter was terrible. Frederick lost several of his best generals, including Prince Francis of Brunswick, Prince Maurice of Dessau, and Field-Marshal Keith, with about 9000 of his soldiers. His camp, baggage, and ammunition also fell into the hands of the Austrians. The victory, however, was productive of little material results; Frederick retreated into Silesia, while the Austrians, after ineffectual attempts on Leipsic, Torgau, and Dresden, retired to Bohemia for the winter. The Austrian army was again largely reinforced, and every preparation made for renewing hostilities with 1759. vigor. The following year (1759) Duke Ferdinand found himself hard pressed by two French armies under the Duke de Broglie and the Marshal de Contades. He sustained a defeat at Bergen (12th April), but afterwards gained a signal victory at Minden (1st August), and compelled the French to retreat. Daun, waiting the approach of the Russians, did not take the field till the beginning of May, when, on their advance towards the Oder, he moved into Lusatia. In June, Dohna, who was sent to check the advance of the Russians, was forced to retreat, and, on the 23d July, Wedel, who succeeded him in the command, was totally routed near Züllichau. The Russians then marched on to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where they were joined by 18,000 Austrians under Marshal Loudon. Frederick hastened with what troops he could collect to give battle to the combined army. The latter took up a strong position on the heights near Kunersdorf, and there they were attacked early on the 12th of August by the king. The Prussians numbered about 50,000, while the Russians and Austrians amounted to 90,000. The battle raged long and furiously, and the issue was long doubtful, but at length the Russians were giving way on all sides, and victory was about to declare for the Prussians, when unexpectedly the Austrians made a furious attack upon them, threw them into confusion, and in a short time drove them from the field. Frederick lost in this action 20,000 of his bravest troops, and the loss on the side of the allies was not less than 24,000 men killed and wounded. In the meantime the Austrians overran Saxony, took Torgau, Wittenberg, and Leipsic, and invested Dresden, which, after a spirited defence, surrendered when an army of relief was close at hand. But Frederick was speedily in the field again at the head of a new army, and by dint of skilful manoeuvring and cutting off supplies, he succeeded in harassing the two armies, and compelled the Russians again to retire into Poland. An army of 13,000 men, under General Fink, attacked the rear of the Austrian army near Maxen, but after a brief but sanguinary conflict they were defeated and taken prisoners. Daun took up his winter quarters in Saxony, notwithstanding every effort of Frederick to dispossess him.

1760.

The imperial troops had been very successful during the last campaign, and were in good condition to renew the fight, while the Prussians had sustained great losses, were dispirited, and could only muster about 80,000 fighting men, and these no longer veterans, but in great measure raw recruits. In the campaign of 1760 Frederick was himself to conduct the war in Saxony, Prince Henry was to protect the marches against the Russians, and General Fouquet was to defend Silesia against the Austrians under Loudon. On 23d June, 8000 Prus sians, under Fouquet, were surrounded and attacked on all sides by 30,000 Austrians at Landshut, and, after defending themselves long with great bravery, were obliged to yield. The king, after an ineffectual attack upon Dresden, marched into Silesia, followed by the Austrians. At Liegnitz he found himself between three armies, under Generals Daun, Lacy, and Loudon, numbering about 90,000 men, while his own army amounted to only about 30,000. On the night preceding the 15th of August, Frederick took up a position on the neighboring heights of Pfaffendorf. Scarcely had he done so when the Austrian army, under Loudon, made its appearance, it having also intended to occupy the same position, and then fall upon the Prussians. The Austrians were greatly astonished to find the enemy before them; nevertheless, they fought for three hours with great bravery, returning again and again to the attack, but were at length compelled to retreat with a loss of 4000 killed and 6000 wounded. Daun afterwards came up and made an attack upon the Prussians, but, learning what had happened to Loudon, he withdrew. Frederick now directed his march on Breslau; and meanwhile the Russians effected a junetion with the Austrians, and marched on Berlin, which surrendered to them (3d October). A week later, hearing that the king was advancing against them, they left the city and retired into Saxony. Daun had likewise arrived in Saxony, and taken up a very strong position near Torgau. Here the Prussians attacked him with great fury on 3d November. The battle lasted till night without being decisive, and the carnage on both sides was fearful. The Prussians prepared to renew the attack next day, but the Austrians retreated during the night. They lost about 12,000 men killed and wounded, and 8000 prisoners. By this battle Frederick reconquered the greater part of Saxony, and accordingly he fixed his winter quarters there, establishing his headquarters at Leipsic. In 1761. 1761 Frederick employed every stratagem to prevent the junction of the Russian army under Buturlin with the Austrian under Loudon. The two armies, however, at length came together in the environs of Strigau (12th August), the combined forces amounting to 130,000 men, while the Prussians numbered only about 50,000. The leaders, however, could not agree to a common course of proceeding, and the two armies separated without effecting anything of consequence. The Austrians surprised and took Schweidnitz (1st October), and the Prussians, after a four months' siege, took possession of Colberg (13th December). In Saxony Prince Henry had to retreat before Daun; but the latter gained no great advantages, and Frederick settled in Breslau for the winter. It seemed as if Prussia must at last yield to her assailants, but this was as far as ever from the king's mind. To add to his difficulties, the subsidies from England were stopped by the earl of Bute after the death of George II. But by the death of the Czarina Elizabeth (5th January, 1762. 1762), he was freed from one of the most powerful of his enemies; and her successor, Peter III., not only recalled the army, but delivered up all the Prussian prisoners, and even entered into an alliance with the king. Sweden also retired from the contest, and entered into terms of peace. Frederick was therefore in a better condition to carry on the war vigorously against Austria, and the seventh campaign was marked by a series of disasters to that power. He attacked and overthrew Daun's right wing at Burkersdorf (21st July), gained a victory at Reichenbach (16th August), and took Schweidnitz after a very gallant defence (9th October). Prince Henry was also victorious at Freiberg (29th October). In the meantime Duke Ferdinand had been during the last three years successfully maintaining the war with the French. Fresh reinforcements and new generals were brought against him, but he could not be crushed; and, by the victories of Wilhelmsthal (24th June) and Lutternburg (23d July), France was brought to agree to peace. Thus Austria and