Carpathians, and especially in Galicia and Buckowina. The Alpine regions are generally well wooded, as is also the country of the Sudetes. The forests are chiefly of oak, pine, beech, ash, elm, and the like, and are estimated to yield annually over 27,000,000 cords of building wood and firewood. Austria is distinguished for the number and Horses. superiority of its horses, for the improvement of which numerous studs exist over the country. The breeding of horses is more or less extensively carried on in all the crownlands, but more especially in Hungary, Transylvania, Buckowina, Galicia, Styria, Bohemia, Moravia, and Upper and Lower Austria. The total number of horses in the country in 1870 was 3,525,842, of which 2,158,819 were in Hungary. All kinds of horses are represented, from the heaviest to the lightest, from the largest to the smallest. The most beautiful horses are found in Transylvania and Buckowina, the largest and strongest in Salzburg. The horses of Styria, Carinthia, Northern Tyrol, and Upper Austria are also famous. In Dalmatia, the Maritime District, and Southern Tyrol, horses are less numerous, and mules and asses in a great measure take their place. Of the 13,891 mules in the country, 45 per cent. were in Dal-ally obtained from the ore raised in the country is 7,600,000 cwt., matia, and 30 per cent. in the Maritime District and Southern Tyrol; and of the 61,831 asses, 28 per cent. were in the former and 21 in the latter. The Hungarian crown-lands contained 2266 mules and 30,482 asses. Cattle. and precious stones. The crown-lands in which mining operations are chiefly carried on are Styria (iron and coal), Carinthia (lead and iron), Carniola (quicksilver), Hungary (gold, silver, copper, iron, and coal), Transylvania (gold and silver), Salzburg (iron), Bohemia (silver, lead, iron, and coal), Moravia (iron and coal), Galicia (salt). The chief places where gold and silver ores are found are (1.) at Zalathna in Transylvania, on the southern range of the Behar Mountains, where affluents of the Körös and Maros take their rise, in which, as well as in the Theiss and the Danube, gold is also found; (2.) The district of Schemnitz and Kremnitz in Hungary; (3.) Pribram and Joa chimsthal in Bohemia. Nearly 3,000,000 cwt. of gold and sil ver ores is obtained annually, from which 64,298 oz. of gold and 1,476,000 oz. of silver are extracted. Of the gold, 54 per cent. is obtained in Transylvania and 44 in Hungary; and of the silver ore, 65 per cent. is raised in Hungary, 27 in Bohemia, and 54 in Transylvania. Iron is found more or less in all the crown-lands except Upper Austria, the Maritime District, and Dalmatia; but it is most plentiful and best in quality in Styria and Carinthia. The amount of raw and cast iron annuof which 28 per cent. is from Styria, 15 from Carinthia, 12 from Bohemia, 11 from Moravia, 16 from Upper Hungary, 64 from other parts of the kingdom of Hungary, and the remainder from the other crown-lands. The principal place where copper is Austria cannot be said to be remarkable as a obtained is the neighborhood of Schmölnitz in Hungary. The cattle-rearing country. Indeed, except in certain quantity for the whole country amounts to 1,500,000 cwt. of ore, districts, particularly among the Alps, it must be considered to from which 65,000 cwt. of pure metal is obtained. Of this 80 be much behind in this branch of industry. The finest cattle per cent. is from Upper Hungary, 6 from Tyrol, and 4 from are to be found in the Alpine regions; in other parts the breeds Buckowina. Carinthia is particularly rich in lead, and from it are generally very inferior. The Hungarian crown-lands, how-more than one-half (52 per cent.) of the entire quantity raised ever, have of late years been improving in this respect. The in the country is obtained. Bohemia yields 26 per cent., and country numbered 12,704,405 head of cattle in 1870, of which Hungary 15. Altogether, 195,000 cwt. of ore, and 114,000 ewt. 5,279,193 were in Hungary, 2,070,572 in Galicia, and 1,602,015 of pure metal is obtained. Idria in Carniola has, after Almain Bohemia. The cattle of the eastern half of the country con- den in Spain, the richest quicksilver mine in Europe, producing siderably outnumbered those of the western; but in quality the 3900 cwt. of pure metal. Of the rest, Hungary produces 1120 latter were far superior to the former. In Hungary and Tran- cwt. and Transylvania 450. Tin is found only in Bohemia, sylvania there are about 72,000 buffaloes. The rearing of sheep which supplies 55,000 cwt. of ore, from which 450 cwt. of tin is receives a large share of attention, and is carried on to a con- obtained. Zinc is found chiefly in the neighborhood of Cracow, siderable extent in all the crown-lands, and in some very exten- where 146,475 cwt. of ore is raised. Austria is particularly rich sively. Much has been done of late years in the way of im- in salt. In Galicia there exists a stratum of rock-salt many proving the breeds, more particularly in Moravia, Silesia, miles in extent, which is worked at Wieliczka and other places. Bohemia, Upper and Lower Austria, and Hungary. The Similar layers occur in Hungary (Marmaros) and Transylvania main object has been the improvement of the wool, and with (at Thorda). There also exist salt springs in Galicia, in Marthis view the merino and other fine-woolled breeds have been maros, and in Transylvania, from which salt is largely extracted, introduced. Some attention, however, is also given to the fat- as it is also to a considerable extent from sea water on the coast. tening properties. For mutton, the best sheep are those of About 3,900,000 cwt. of rock-salt is annually obtained from the Lower Carinthia, the Maritime District, Dalmatia, and the mines (of which 22 per cent. is from Galicia, 24 from Marmaros, Military Frontier. The sheep are frequently driven from one 34 from Transylvania), from the various salt springs about part of the country to another for the sake of pasture, and even 2,800,000 cwt., and from the salt-works on the coast 1,400,000 into other countries, as Lombardy, Turkey, and the Danubian cwt. Austria is possessed of almost inexhaustible stores of coal, Principalities. The number of sheep in the country in 1870 and the amount annually raised exceeds 6,000,000 tons, of which was 20,000,000, of which 15,000,000 were in the kingdom of 48 per cent. is in Bohemia, 12 in Hungary, 11 in Silesia, 10 in Hungary. The goat, which has been called the poor man's Styria, 6 in Moravia, 2 in Galicia, and 14 in Carniola. Peat cow, is also to be found in all parts of the country, but more and clay are abundant in certain parts of the country; porceparticularly in the mountainous districts and among the poorer lain earth is found in Bohemia and Moravia; white, red, black, peasantry. The total number in the country in 1870 was and variously-colored marbles exist in the Alps, particularly in 1,552,000, of which 573,000 were in Hungary. Dalmatia, how- Tyrol and Salzburg; quartz, felspar, heavy spar, rock-crystal, ever, is the great country of the goats, where they number asbestos, &c., are found in various parts; and among precious 280,656, after which follow Bohemia with 194,273, and Tyrol stones may be specially mentioned the Hungarian opals and with 137,698. The number of swine was 6,984,752, of which the Bohemian garnets. The number of persons employed in 4,443,279 were in Hungary. They are naturally most numer- the various mines in Austria Proper in 1870 was 75,451, and in ous in those crown-lands which contain extensive oak and beech the smelting and casting works, 13,857. In addition to these, forests, or which have many distilleries. Hence they are mostly 9818 persons were employed in the salt-mines and other saltfound in Hungary, Transylvania, the Military Frontier, Gali- works. In Hungary 50,143 persons were employed in mining cia, Styria, and Bohemia. and smelting. The total annual value of the raw materials obtained from the mines is estimated at over £9,000,000, of which nearly one-half is of coal, a fifth of iron, an eighth of gold and silver, and a tenth of rock-salt. Bees are extensively kept, particularly in the crown-lands of Lower Austria, Hungary, Galicia, and Transylvania. There were in 1870 15,300,000 bee-hives in the country, yielding 7,750,000 lb of honey and 340,000 b of wax. The silk-worm is cultivated in certain parts of the southern districts, particularly in Southern Tyrol, which yields 2,200,000 lb of cocoons, being nearly double that of all the rest of the country put together. The rivers and lakes in general abound with fish, which are also plentiful along the coast. In Dalmatia, in particular, fishing constitutes an important branch of industry, affording employment to many of the population. Leeches are common in the swamps, and form a considerable article of export. The average annual value of the produce of the land and forests, including the cattle, and hunting and fishing, is estimated at £212,000,000. The value of the real property, including the cattle and agricultural implements, is given at £782,000,000. In the extent and variety of its mineral resources Minerals. Austria ranks among the first countries of Europe. Besides the noble metals, gold and silver, it abounds in ores of more or less richness of iron, copper, lead, and tin; while in less abundance are found zinc, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese, bismuth, chromium, uranium, tellurium, sulphur, graphite, asphalt, rock-salt, coal, and petroleum. There are also marble, roofing-slate, gypsum, porcelain earth, potter's clay, Manufac tures. The manufactures of Austria have made great progress during the last twenty years, and now some of them are extensively carried on. They include cotton, flax, hemp, woollen and silk stuffs; gold, silver, iron, lead, copper, tin, and zinc articles; leather, paper, beer, brandy, and sugar; porcelain and earthenware; chemical stuffs; scientific and musical instruments, &c. The manufactures are principally carried on in the western crown-lands, and more particularly in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria. In Galicia and the Hungarian crown-lands the manufactures are comparatively neglected. The principal seats of the cotton, woollen, and linen manufactures are in Moravia, Silesia, Bohemia, and Vienna; of iron and steel wares in Styria and Carinthia; iron in Upper Austria; cast-iron goods in Moravia, Styria, Carinthia, and Bohemia; silk in Vienna; glass and porce lain in Bohemia; beet-root sugar in Bohemia and Moravia; leather in Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, and Hungary; beer in Bohemia and Lower Austria; brandy in Galicia, Moravia, and Bohemia; cabinet wares and musical instruments in Vienna and Prague; and scientific and surgical instruments in Vienna. The cotton manufacture has made very rapid progress, and is now one of the most extensive and flourishing in the country. in Northern and 85 in Southern Bohemia), but the wares are also of very superior quality. Their annual value is about £1,000,000. Except in Styria and Moravia there is little glass made in other parts of the country, and that only of the commoner sorts. The manufacture of mirrors is also extensively carried on in Bohemia and some other parts. Bohemia and Moravia are likewise distinguished for their earthen and poroelain wares. The preparation of chemical stuffs has been of late phuric and muriatic acids are largely made in Bohemia, Lower Austria, and Silesia; pharmaceutical preparations and perfumes are made chiefly in Vienna, and dye-stuffs in Lower Austria and Bohemia. The manufacture of wooden articles is widespread over the country, and affords employment to a great number of persons. The smaller articles, particularly children's toys, are largely made by the peasantry in the mountainous and rural districts, particularly in Tyrol, Salzburg, Upper Austria, and Bohemia. Furniture, wagons, and carriages are made in Vienna and other large towns. There are also several establishments for the manufacture of railway carriages in Vienna and Prague. In 1831 the import of cotton was 101,000 cwt., and the export 175; in 1850 the former had risen to 522,000, and the latter to 1270; and in 1870 the former was 1,100,000, and the latter 36,000 cwt. There are 172 spinning factories, with 1,750,000 spindles, in the country, almost all situated in Lower Austria, Bohemia, and Vorarlberg. There are 46 factories, with 550,000 spindles, in Lower Austria, between the Vienna Forest and the Leitha, and beside them are 7 dyeing and printing works. A principal seat of the cotton manufacture is in Northern Bohe-years greatly extended, and is now actively carried on. Sulmia, from the Eger to Reichenberg, where there are no fewer than 80 spinning factories and 25 printing works. Besides these, there are 7 factories at Prague and 1 in Southern Bohemia. In Vorarlberg there are 21 factories, with 200,000 spindles; and in Upper Austria 7 factories and 6 printing works. The flax and hemp manufacture is one of the oldest in the country, and was long the most important. In consequence, however, of the rapid advancement of the cotton manufacture it is no longer of the same importance as formerly; yet it still affords employment to a great number of persons, and is very generally extended over the country. It is principally carried on as a domestic branch of industry, and in country districts is frequently engaged in as a secondary pursuit by those employed in agricultural labors. The flax is mostly spun by hand, and the weaving confined to the commoner kinds of linen, being chiefly intended for home use. In Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Upper Austria, however, this manufacture is more extensively carried on than in other parts. There are here a number of factories for the spinning of flax, and the finer kinds of linen are manufactured. The manufacture of mathematical, optical, and surgical instruments, and of physical and chemical apparatus, has of late years risen rapidly into importance, particularly in Vienna and Prague, and now these are to be found among the exports to other countries. Austria is also distinguished for the manufacture of musical instruments, particularly pianos and organs, but also for other stringed and wind instruments. Clock or watch making is not very extensively carried on. The leather manufacture forms an important branch of industry, the value of the goods annually produced being estimated at not less than £10,000,000. It is principally carried on in Lower Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, Transylvania, and Hungary. Vienna and Prague are the great centres of the boot and shoe trade, and the gloves made in these towns are considered little inferior to those of France. Saddlery is also largely carried on in these towns, and in Pesth. The woollen manufacture is also an old established branch of industry, and is actively carried on. It is estimated that about 600,000 cwt. of wool is annually spun; and there are about 230 spinning factories, with upwards of 700,000 spindles. The great seats of the woollen manufacture are in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Upper Austria. In Bohemia its great seat is in and around Reichenberg, where the annual value of the goods produced is about £1,800,000. In Moravia the principal seats are Brünn (for coarse, and also the finest sorts of cloth), Paper-making has of late made considerable progress in Namiescht, and Iglau. In these two crown-lands is made half Austria. There are 70 paper machines and 193 paper mills in of the entire quantity of woollen goods produced in the coun- operation, 20 of the former and 100 of the latter being in Bohetry. The principal of the other seats are the districts Bielitz in mia. The rest are mostly in Lower Austria, Styria, and Fiume. Silesia, Vienna in Lower Austria, and Viktring in Carinthia Painting, lithographing, engraving, and map making, are (for fine goods). Vienna is also distinguished for its manufao-actively carried on in Vienna and some of the other large towns. ture of shawls. The coarser kinds of woollen goods are gen- There are 44 printing and 78 lithographic establishments in erally manufactured over the country, and principally in the Vienna alone. people's houses, and for home use. The manufacture of silk stuffs is principally carried on in Vienna, and to a small extent in the north of Bohemia and in the Maritime District. The spinning of silk has its principal seat in Southern Tyrol, where about 550,000 tb are spun annually, besides which about 1,700,000 tb are annually brought from other countries. The iron and steel manufactures form one of the most important branches of industry, and afford employment to a great number of persons. They are more or less extensively carried on in all the crown-lands, except the Maritime District, Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia; but their principal seats are in Lower and Upper Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Styria, and Carinthia. One of the most important of these seats is Steier and its neighborhood, in Upper Austria, where there are about 700 establishments, producing goods-chiefly cutlery, scythes, sickles, firearms, &c.-to the value of £400,000 annually. In Styria there are large ironworks at Maria-Zell and Neuberg; and in Carinthia, at Prevali, Buchscheiden, and Ferlach. There are also large ironworks in Lower Austria, Carniola, Tyrol, Bohemia, and Moravia. The making of steam engines and other kinds of machinery is largely carried on in and about Vienna, where there are 26 establishments for this purpose. There are similar establishments in other parts of Lower Austria, in Styria, Bohemia, Silesia, and Buckowina. The Lloyds' Company has also large workshops at Trieste. About 1,100,000 cwt. of iron are annually used in the making of machinery, and about 6,600,000 cwts. in the other iron and steel manufactures, among which may be mentioned cutlery, firearms, files, wire, nails, tinplate, steel pens, needles, &c. The principal copper-works are at Brixlegg and other places in Tyrol, and in Galicia, Buckowina, and Hungary. The quantity of metal employed is about 40,000 cwt., and the value of the articles annually produced is £250,000. In the lead-works the quantity of metal employed is 65,000 cwt., and the annual value of the goods produced, £100,000. Tin is manufactured (principally in Bohemia) to the annual value of £50,000, and zine to that of £2500. The precious metals, gold and silver, are principally worked in the larger towns, particularly Vienna and Prague, and the value of the articles annually produced is about £1,700,000. In addition to this a considerable amount of gold and silver is annually taken up by the mints. mixed metals are also made and manufactured to a considerable extent, as brass, bell metal, gun metal, pinchbeck, &c. The The glass manufacture has its greatest development in Bohemis, where there are not only the greatest number of works (35 Austria is noted for its beer, particularly that of Vienna and Bohemia. There are about 3200 breweries in the country, of which more than 1000 are in Bohemia. The largest establishments, however, are in Lower Austria, in the neighborhood of Vienna. The annual quantity of beer made is estimated at about 186,000,000 gallons. Brandy is made largely in Hungary, Galicia, and Buckowina, and to a less extent in Bohemia, Moravia, and Lower Austria. Rosoglio, maraschino, and other liqueurs, are made in Dalmatia and Moravia. The manufacture of sugar from beet-root is in a very flourish ing state, and is rapidly extending. In 1857 there were in Austria Proper 91 sugar-works, consuming 8,300,000 cwt. of beet, which amounts were in 1870 raised to 190 and 24,834,646 respectively. In Bohemia alone there were 126 works, consuming 15,279,000 cwt. of beet. Of the other works, Moravia possessed 45, Silesia 10, Lower Austria 6, Galicia 5. This manufacture is also carried on to some extent in Hungary and Transylvania. The manufacture as well as the growth of tobacco is a government monopoly. There are 22 establishments for the manufacture of tobacco and cigars, employing about 20,000 workpeople. Of these there are 5 in Lower Austria, 3 in Galicia, 2 in Moravia, 2 in Tyrol, and 4 in Hungary. The largest are those of Hainburg in Lower Austria (where about one-sixth of the whole is manufactured), Fürstenfeld in Styria, and Sedler in Bohemia. About 70,000,000 lb of tobacco are manufactured annually. The annual value of the industrial products of Austria is estimated at not less than £130,000,000, of which 33 per cent. falls to the eastern, and 67 per cent. to the western half of the country. Among the crown-lands, 18 per cent. belongs to Bohemia alone, 15 to Lower Austria, 15 to Hungary, 6 to Transylvania and the other Hungarian crown-lands, 11 to Galicia and Buckowina, 10 to Moravia, 6 to Tyrol, 4 to Styria, and 4 to Upper Austria. Austria is not favorably situated for commerce on Commerce. account of its inland position, its small extent of sea-coast, and the mountainous character of much of its surface. Its trade was also formerly very much hampered by high duties, and restrictions of various kinds. These, however, have now been very much modified or removed, and its trade has in consequence rapidly improved. Much has been done, too, in the way of making and improving the roads, opening mountain passes, constructing railways, and establishing lines of steamers. In 1874 there were 9530 miles of railway in operation, of which 5755 were in Austria and 3775 in Hungary. Besides these there were about 2000 miles in course of construction. There are also 59,770 miles of highways, of which 70 per cent. are in Austria and 30 in Hungary. Bohemia, in particular, is distinguished for the number and excellence of its roads. The river Danube is navigable for steamers for its entire length in the country-from Passau to Orsova. Many of its affluents are also navigable for a considerable length, particularly the Theiss, Drave, and Save. The Danube Steam Company possesses 155 steamers, of 13,946 horse-power, and 495 towed boats. There are also steamers on a number of the larger lakes. Altogether, Austria possesses 4240 miles of navigable river and canal communication, of which the greater part (60 per cent.) is in Hungary. As might be expected from its natural position, the overland foreign trade of Austria is more important than its sea traffic. While the latter amounted to £29,682,400, the former was no less than £55,039,034 (imports, £27,890,181; exports, £27,148,853). Of the overland trade about 74 per cent. is with Germany, 14 with Turkey, 6 with Italy, 5 with Russia, and rather more than with Switzerland. It includes colonial goods, agricul tural and garden produce, animals and animal produce, the produce of the mines and manufactures, chemical products, machines, scientific instruments, wine, beer, brandy, &c. Besides these, there is a considerable transit trade through the country, chiefly from the seaports and the eastern borders, towards the The principal seaports of Austria are Trieste and Fiume, at north and north-west. It is estimated at about £12,000,000. the head of the Adriatic, the former in the Maritime crown- The internal trade consists chiefly of the exchange of the proland, the latter in that of Croatia. The number of vessels that ducts of different parts of the country, more particularly of the entered the port of Trieste in 1870 was-sailing vessels, laden, agricultural products of the east with the industrial products of 5332; in ballast, 898; total tonnage, 407,606; value of imports, the west. Important markets are held at fixed times in the £4,673,170: steamers, laden, 924; in ballast, 900; total tonnage, principal towns for the different kinds of produce. Vienna, as 552,497; value of imports, £12,586,950. The number of vessels being the capital and the seat of so many different branches of that left was-sailing vessels, laden, 4409; in ballast, 1794; industry, and as having ready means of communication with total tonnage, 441,601; value of exports, £3,325,400: steamers, all parts of the country, is the principal seat both of the home laden, 920; in ballast, 900; total tonnage, 571,175; value of and of the foreign trade, and the great resort of merchants and exports, £6,716,940. Trieste is the seat of the Austrian Lloyds' capitalists. Company, which trades principally with the eastern ports of Austria possesses a number of banks, the principal of which the Mediterranean, Galacz, Sinope, Smyrna, Beirout, Alexan-are-the National Bank, founded in 1816, and having an active dria, &c. They own 68 steam vessels. The number of vessels capital of £9,000,000; the Austrian Land-Credit Institute, that entered the port of Fiume in 1870 was-sailing vessels, founded 1864, active capital, £960,000; the Austrian Trade and laden, 1530; in ballast, 270; total tonnage, 77,499; value of Manufactures Credit Institute, founded 1855, active capital, imports, £519,820: steamers, laden, 229; in ballast, 17; total £4,000,000; the Anglo-Austrian Bank, founded 1863, active tonnage, 52,671; value of imports, £174,720. The number of capital, £1,704,500; the Union Bank, founded 1879, active vessels that left was-sailing vessels, laden, 1180; in ballast, capital, £1,200,000; the Franco-Austrian Bank, founded 1869, 622; total tonnage, 88,781; value of exports, £366,790: steam- active capital, £800,000; the Lower Austrian Discount Comers, laden, 245; in ballast, 1; total tonnage, 52,671; value of pany, founded 1853, active capital, £700,000. The National exports, £94,340. Bank is the only company authorized to issue notes. There are also a number of savings banks and loan institutions of various kinds, as well as numerous societies formed with a view of furthering in various ways industry and commerce. In 1871 there were 3504 post-offices in Austria, and 1638 in Hungary; the number of private letters that passed through the former in that year was 125,614,538, and through the latter, 37,368,139; of newspapers through the former, 51,780,909, and through the latter, 22,303,771. There were also throughout the country 1081 telegraph stations, and 22,536 miles of lines transmitting upwards of 5,000,000 messages during that year. The commercial navy of Austria in 1870 comprised 83 steam vessels, of 47,242 tons burden, having 2352 men; 566 large sailing vessels, trading with foreign countries, of 255,930 tons burden, having 5939 men; and 2487 coasting vessels, of 555,318 tons burden, having 7588 men. Besides these, there were 4717 smaller vessels, with 14,475 tons and 12,305 men, employed as lighters, in fishing, &c. The number of trading vessels that entered and left the various ports in 1870 was-entered, sailing vessels, Austrian, laden, 17,364 (tonnage, 486,745); in ballast, 9727 (tonnage, 270,887); foreign, laden, 4360 (tonnage, 263,942); in ballast, 2793 (tonnage, 184,760): steamers, Austrian, laden, 4964 (tonnage, 1,676,095); in ballast, 2597 (tonnage, 409,480); foreign, laden, 179 (tonnage, 138,032); in ballast, 12 (tonnage, 7847). Left-sailing vessels, Austrian, laden, 17,204 (tonnage, 468,093); in ballast, 10,308 (tonnage, 290,531); foreign, laden, 5705 (tonnage, 384,019); in ballast, 1976 (tonnage, 103,995): steamers, Austrian, laden, 4160 (tonnage, 1,403,865); in ballast, 3397 (tonnage, 678,512); foreign, laden, 160 (tonnage, 143,100); in ballast, 32 (tonnage, 21,790). Total entered-Austrian vessels, 34,852 (tonnage, 2,843,207); foreign, 7344 (tonnage, 594,581): left-Austrian, 35,069 (tonnage, 2,841,001); foreign, 7271 (tonnage, 652,904). The total value of the imports was £16,630,150; of the exports, £13,052,250-£7,098,180 of the former, and £3,578,810 of the latter, being in foreign vessels. The principal foreign trade is carried on with Italy, Greece, Turkey, England, Holland, Norway and Sweden, North Germany, Denmark, and North America. The number of vessels belonging to the principal foreign states that entered and left the various ports in 1870, was as follows: Left. Value of Vessels. Tonnage. Cargoes. Govern The head of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is the emperor and king, who is also the head of ment. the army and of the executive. The succession is hereditary, in the order of primogeniture, in the male line of the house of Hapsburg-Lothringen, or Lorraine; and failing this, in the female line. The monarchy comprises two distinct states-a German or Cisleithan, commonly called Austria, and a Magyar or Transleithan, Each of these has its own parusually termed Hungary. liament, ministers, and government; while the army and navy and foreign relations are common. These are under the direction of a controlling body known as the Delega tions, consisting of sixty members for each state, two-thirds being elected by the Lower House, and one-third by the Upper House of each of the parliamentary bodies. They usually sit and vote in two chambers-one for Austria, the other for Hungary; but in the event of disagreement on any question, they meet together, and without further delib eration give their final votes, and the decision thus arrrived at is binding on the whole empire. Their resolutions require neither the approval nor the confirmation of the representative assemblies by which they are chosen, but only imperial assent. The executive is vested in three depart 303,260 ments-(1), A ministry of foreign affairs; (2), a ministry 132,510 of war; and (3), a ministry of finance. These are respon sible to the Delegations. The Reichsrath, or Parliament of Austria, consists of an Upper and a Lower House. The former, the House of Lords, is composed-(1), of princes of the imperial house who are of age (14 in 1874); (2), of the heads of noble houses of high rank, in whom the dignity is hereditary (56); (3), of the archbishops (10) and of bishops with the rank of princes (7); and (4), of life members nominated by the emperor on account of dis tinguished services (102). The Lower House, or House of Representatives, is composed of 353 members, elected to represent the different crown-lands by all citizens who are of age and possessed of a small property qualification. The emperor annually convokes the Reichsrath, and nominates the presidents and vice-presidents of each division out of the members. The business of the Reichsrath embraces all matters of legislation relating to laws, duties, and interests, except such as are specially excluded as £ 1.539,910 3557 185,112 1,623,730 4508 301,781 Dutch 1,237,390 The principal imports, with their values, were-coffee, £805,370; sugar, £218,950; tobacco, in leaf, £417,670; ditto, manufactured, £457,520; wheat, £311,500; maize, £331,060; flour, £431,840; olive oil, £778,890; iron, raw and wrought, £1,210,570; raw cotton, £1,855,210; cotton yarn, £303,130; cotton goods, £1,375,390; linen goods, £226,470; wool, £266,270; woollen goods, £252,900; machines, £216,010. The principal exports were coffee, £336,610; sugar, £381,090; manufactured tobacco, £370,610; wheat, £244,410; maize, £434,980; flour, £938,730; olive oil, £614,640; spirits of wine, £334,620; barrel staves, £517,520; building stones, £307,040; raw cotton, £293,750; cotton goods, £2,030,060; wool, £109,490; woollen goods, £249,738; articles of clothing, £212,540; paper, £256,070. belonging to other departments. It also takes up matters connected with trade, commerce, and finance, the post-office, railways, telegraphs, customs, the mint, raising of new loans, imposing of new taxes, budgets, matters relating to military service, &c. The members of either House have the right to propose new laws on matters within their province; but the consent of both Houses, as well as the sanction of the emperor, is required to render them valid. The executive is vested in the president and ministries of the interior, religion and education, finance, commerce, agriculture, national defence, and justice. The ministers form also the Ministerial Council, which is presided over by the emperor or a minister-president. In addition to the Reichsrath, there are seventeen provincial diets established in different districts of the country, for the direction and regulation of local matters, taxation, education, religion, public works, charitable institutions, industry, trade, &c. Each diet is composed of the archbishops and bishops of the Roman Catholic and Greek Catholic Churches, of the rectors of the universities, and of representatives of the great landed estates, of the towns, of chambers of industry and commerce, and of rural communes. The number of members varies according to the size and importance of the districts from 20 or 30 up to 100 for Moravia, 151 for Galicia, and 241 for Bohemia. The Hungarian Parliament or Reichstag consists of an Upper and a Lower House, the former known as the House of Magnates, the latter as the House of Representatives. The Upper House, in 1873, consisted of 3 princes of the reigning house, having estates in the kingdom, 31 archbishops and bishops of the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches, and 381 high officials and peers of the kingdom. The Lower House is composed of representatives elected for three years by citizens of age who pay a certain amount of direct taxes. The number of representatives, in 1873, was 444, of whom 334 represented the counties, rural districts, and towns of Hungary; 75 represented Transylvania; and 35 Croatia and Slavonia. The president and vice-president of the House of Magnates are nominated by the king from among the members; and the president and two vice-presidents of the House of Representatives are elected by the members. The sovereign, though emperor of Austria, is styled "king" in all public documents. The executive is vested in a president and ministries of national defence, the court, finance, interior, religion and education, justice, public works, agriculture, industry and commerce, and for Croatia and Slavonia. 1. Ministry of Foreign Affairs £424,629 (Army...8,909,356 Ordinary. Extraordinary. Total. 2. Ministry of War Navy... 831,427 3. Ministry of Finance......... 192,098 Board of Control............. 10,409 The estimated Revenue for the same period was as follows:-- War ....................................................................................................... Board of Control................................................................................... 650,264 £23,221,939 The budget for 1874 gives the revenue as £22,402,790, and £435,810 the expenditure as £25,673,382, being a deficit of £3,270,592. 9,899,318 Though the Austrian budget for 1873 presents a surplus, there 1,014,081 had for many years previously been a large annual deficit, 192,203 amounting in some years to £6,000,000 or £7,000,000; and the 10,409 two subsequent years also show a considerable deficiency. Con£10,367,919 £1,183,902 £11,551,821 sequently the public debt has been rapidly increasing. In 1815 the national debt amounted to £82,500,000, in 1830 to £108,000,000, in 1848 to £125,000,000, in 1857 to £239,000,000, in 1866 to £291,000,000, and in 1874 to £323,800,000, of which £264,000,000 was funded, £22,200,000 redeemable, and £37,600,000 floating debt. By the cession of the Lombardo-Venetian provinces in 1866, Austria was relieved of £3,500,000 of debt affecting those territories. The kingdom of Hungary had also at the end of 1873 a debt of £48,871,783. Austria is said to have " during the last few years Army. made greater sacrifices to improve the efficiency of her army and obtained greater results than any other nation in Europe. Her military educational establishments and system of training, both elementary and professional, for officers and men, are of a very high order" (Captain W. S. Cooke On the Armed Strength of Austria, 1873). A new scheme of army organization was brought into operation in 1869, by which the military forces of the whole empire are divided into the standing army with its reserve, the Landwehr, the Ersatz-reserve, and the Landsturm. The standing army is maintained for the defence of the empire against a foreign foe, and for the preservation of order and security at home. The Landwehr is intended to support the standing army in time of war and for home defence. ..... Payments by Hungary on account of Military Share of Expenditure falling to Austria (70 p. c.) 188,319 6,459,368 2,768,302 £11,551,821 The budget of Austria Proper for 1873 was as follows:- Receipts. Direct Taxes...... Customs Duties..... Duties on Articles of Consumption............ Salt Monopoly............. Tobacco Monopoly. £9,034,400 2,314,100 Carry Forward..................£24,909,330 The Ersatz-reserve is composed of a certain class of conscripts | put an end to the project, and with him the line became who are destined to fill up the ranks of the standing army in extinct. time of war, but in peace remain on permanent furlough. The Landsturm is made up of volunteers who do not belong either to the standing army, the navy, or the Landwehr. It is called out and organized to the extent required when the country is threatened by a hostile invasion, and is intended to support the standing army and Landwehr. Military service is compulsory on all citizens capable of bearing arms. The term of service lasts for twelve years-three in the standing army, seven in the reserve, and two in the Landwehr. The strength of the army in peace is fixed at 252,000 men, to be raised during war to 800,000, of which Austria has to furnish 457,012, and Hungary 342,988. It is composed of 80 regiments of infantry, 41 regiments of cavalry, 13 regiments of artillery, 2 regiments of engineers, 1 regiment pioneers, and other troops. (See Navy. ARMY, vol. ii. p. 528.) The navy was in 1874 composed of 47 steam-vessels, of 96,700 tons burden and 16,635 horse-power, carrying 395 guns; 17 sailing vessels, of 11,800 tons; and 6 steam tenders, of 1260 tons burden and 366 horsepower. The number of seamen in peace, 5782; in war, 11,532. The naval stations are Pola and Trieste. History. The present empire of Austria took its rise in a margraviate founded by Charlemagne, towards the close of the 8th century, in that fertile tract of country lying along the southern bank of the Danube to the east of the river Enns, and now included in lower Austria. It was called Ostreich or Oesterreich, the eastern country, from its position relative to the rest of Germany. It continued to be ruled by margraves (Ger. Markgraf, lord of the marches) for several centuries, down to the year 1156, when the territory west of the Enns was added to it, and it was raised to a duchy. It subsequently received further accessions of territory, and in 1453 was made an archduchy. The country of the present archduchy of Austria was in early times inhabited by the Taurisci, a Celtic race, who were afterwards better known as the Norici. They were conquered by the Romans in 14 B.C.; and thereafter a portion of what is now Lower Austria and Styria, together with the municipal city of Vindobona, now Vienna, and even then a place of considerable importance, was formed into the province of Pannonia; and the rest of Lower Austria and Styria, together with Carinthia and a part of Carniola, into that of Noricum. Tyrol was included in Rhætia, while north of the Danube, and extending to the borders of Bohemia and Moravia, were the territories of the Marcomanni and the Quadi. These were not unfrequently troublesome to the Romans; and during the greater part of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, from 169 to 180 A.D., they maintained with varying success a harassing war against them. In 174 the Roman army was so nearly cut off by the Quadi that its safety was attributed to a miracle. The emperor died at Vindobona when on an expedition against those troublesome neighbors, and his successor, Commodus, was glad to make peace with them. On the decline of the imperial power these Roman provinces became a prey to the incursions of barbaric tribes. During the 5th and 6th centuries the country was successively occupied by the Boii, Vandals, Heruli, Rugii, Goths, Huns, Lombards, and Avari. About 568, after the Lombards had settled in Upper Italy, the River Enns became the boundary between the Bajuvarii, a people of German origin, and the Avari, who had come from the east. In 788 the Avari crossed the Enus and attacked Bavaria, but were subsequently driven back by Charlemagne, and forced to retreat as far as the Raab, their country from the Enns to that river being then made a part of Germany. It was taken by the Hungarians in 900, but was again annexed to Germany in 955 by Otho I. In 983 the emperor appointed Leopold I., of Babenberg or Bamberg, margrave of Austria, and his dynasty ruled the country for 263 years. He died in 994, and was succeeded by his son, Henry I., who governed till 1018. In 1156 Austria received an accession of territory west of the Enns, and was raised to a duchy by the Emperor Frederick I. The first duke was Henry Jasomirgott, who took part in the second crusade. He removed the ducal residence to Vienna, and began the building of St. Stephen's cathedral. His successor, Leopold V., in 1192, obtained Styria as an addition to his territory, and Frederick II. received possession of Carniola. Frederick, in the latter years of his life, contemplated the erection of Austria into a kingdom, but his sudden death in a battle against the Magyars, in 1246, Hapsburg dynasty. Styria to have lapsed to the imperial crown, and appointed The Emperor Frederick II. now declared Austria and a lieutenant to govern them on the part of the empire. But claims to the succession were brought forward by descendants of the female branch of the Babenberg line; and after various contests Ottocar, son of the king of Bohe mia, gained possession about 1252 of the duchies of Austria and Styria. In 1269 he succeeded to Carinthia, a part of Carniola and Friuli; but he lost all by refusing to acknowledge the Emperor Rudolph of Hapsburg, and eventually fell in battle in an attempt to recover them in 1278. try, and appointed his eldest son governor; but The emperor now took possession of the countion of the electors of the empire to the act, he conferred subsequently, in 1282, having obtained the sancthe duchies of Austria and Styria, with the province of Carinthia, on his sons Albert and Rudolph, and thus introduced the Hapsburg dynasty. The brothers transferred Carinthia to Meinhard, count of Tyrol; and in 1283 Albert became sole possessor of Austria, Styria, and Carniola. He increased his possessions considerably by wars with his neighbors, but was murdered at Rheinfelden in 1308, when on an expedition against the Swiss, by his nephew, John of Swabia, whom he had deprived of his hereditary possessions. He was succeeded by his five sons, Frederick, Leopold, Henry, Albert, and Otto. In 1314 Frederick, the eldest, was set up by a party as emperor in opposition to Louis, duke of Bavaria, but was defeated and taken prisoner by his rival in 1322. În 1315 Duke Leopold was defeated in an attempt to recover the forest towns of Switzerland which had revolted from his father. Leopold died in 1326, Henry in 1327, and Frederick in 1330. The two surviving brothers then made peace with the Emperor Louis, and in 1335 they acquired Carinthia by inheritance. On the death of Otto in 1339 Albert became sole ruler. He died in 1358. His son and successor, Rudolph II., finished the church of St. Stephen's and founded the university of Vienna, dying childless in 1365. He was succeeded by his two brothers, Albert III. and Leopold III., who in 1379 divided their possessions between them, the former taking the duchy of Austria, the latter Styria and other parts. Leopold fell at Sempach in 1386, but his descendants continued to rule in Styria. Albert acquired Tyrol and some other districts, and died in 1395. He was succeeded by his son, Albert IV., who was poisoned at Znaim in 1404, when on an expedition against Procopius, count of Moravia. Albert V. succeeded his father, and having married the daughter of the Emperor Sigismund, he obtained the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, and became emperor (Albert II.) in 1438. He died the following year, and was succeeded by his posthumous son Ladislaus, who died without issue in 1457. The Austrian branch of the family thus became extinct, and was succeeded by that of Styria. The crowns of Hungary and Bohemia passed for a time into other hands. The possession of Austria, which in 1453 had been raised to an archduchy, was for some years a subject of dispute between the Emperor Frederick III. and his brothers, but at length, on the death of Albert in 1463, the emperor obtained sole possession. His son Maximilian, by marrying the daughter of Charles the Bold, acquired the Netherlands in 1477, but on the death of his father in 1493 he succeeded him as emperor, and transferred the government of the Netherlands to his son Philip. He added Tyrol and some parts of Bavaria to his paternal pos sessions, and made some advances towards the recovery of Hungary and Bohemia. His son Philip, by his marriage with Johanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, acquired a right to the crown of Spain, but died in 1506. Maximilian died in 1519, and was succeeded by his grandson Charles (son of Philip), who two years before had obtained the Spanish crown, and was now made emperor under the title of Charles V. By treaties dated 1521 and 1524, Charles resigned all his hereditary possessions in Germany, except the Netherlands, to his brother Ferdinand. The latter, by his marriage with Anna, sister of the king of Hungary, acquired right to the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, together with Moravia, Silesia, and Lausatia. His right to Hungary, however, was contested by John Zapolya, waywode of Transylvania, who was elected by a party of the nobles, and was crowned |