AUSTRALIA. friends. The reality of this custom is proved by the testimony of trustworthy English witnesses, who have watched the revolting act. The only idea of a god known to be enter tained by these people is that of Buddai, a gigantic old man lying asleep for ages, with his head resting upon his arm, which is deep in the sand. He is expected one day to awake and eat up the world. They have no religion beyond these gloomy dreams. Their notions of duty relate mostly to neighborly service and social interest; and they are not all thieves or liars, but are capable of many good deeds. The marriage bond is observed by the wife or wives, the penalty of its violation being death. But chastity upon any other account is a virtue beyond the native conception, though a certain delicacy of feeling in matters of sex is not unknown. The deplorable lack of moral restraint has involved this unhappy race in sufferings which may be easily understood, from their contact with the more reckless and vicious representatives of foreign nations. The numbers of the native Australians are steadily diminishing. A remnant of the race exists in each of the provinces, while a few tribes still wander over the interior. Altogether it is computed that not more than about 80,000 aborigines remain on the continent. Perhaps the most complete and trustworthy information on the Australian race is to be found in works published some twenty or thirty years ago, before the country was occupied as it now is by the European settler. Mr. Eyre's work above referred to, and Captain (afterwards Sir George) Grey's Discoveries in North-West and Western Australia, are authorities that may be relied upon. Colonial History.-Of the five Australian provinces, that of New South Wales may be reckoned the oldest. It was in 1788, eighteen years after Captain Cook explored the east coast, that Port Jackson was founded as a penal station for criminals from England; and the settlement retained that character, more or less, during the subsequent fifty years, transportation being virtually suspended in 1839. The colony, however, from 1821 had made a fair start in free industrial progress. By this time, too, several of the other provinces had come into existence. Van Diemen's Land, now called Tasmania, had been occupied as early as 1803. It was an auxiliary penal station under New South Wales, till in 1825 it became a separate province. From this island, ten years later, parties crossed Bass's Straits to Port Phillip, where a new settlement was shortly established, forming till 1851 a part of New South Wales, but now the richer and more populous colony of Victoria. In 1827 and 1829, an English company endeavored to plant a settlement at the Swan River, and this, added to a small convict station established in 1825 at King George's Sound, constituted Western Australia. On the shores of the Gulf St. Vincent, again, from 1835 to 1837, South Australia was created by another joint-stock company, as an experiment in the Wakefield scheme of colonization. Such were the political component parts of British Australia up to 1839. The earlier history, therefore, of New South Wales is peculiar to itself. Unlike the other mainland provinces, it was at first held and used chiefly for the reception of British convicts. When that system was abolished, the social conditions of New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia became more equal. Previous to the gold discoveries of 1851 they may be included, from 1839, in a general summary view. The first British governors at Sydney, from 1788, ruled with despotic power. They were naval or military officers in command of the garrison, the convicts, and the few free settlers. The duty was performed by such men as Captain Arthur Phillip, Captain Hunter, and others. twelve years' rule of General Macquarie, closing with 1821, In the the colony made a substantial advance. By means of convict labor roads and bridges were constructed, and a route opened into the interior beyond the Blue Mountains. A population of 30,000, three-fourths of them convicts, formed the infant commonwealth, whose attention was soon directed to the profitable trade of rearing fine wool sheep, first commenced by Mr. John M'Arthur in 1803. During the next ten years, 1821-31, Sir Thomas Brisbane and Sir Ralph Darling, two generals of the army, being successively governors, the colony increased, and eventually succeeded in obtaining the advantages of a representative institution, by means of a legislative council. Then came General Sir Kichard Bourke, whose wise and | 99 liberal administration proved most beneficial. New South Wales became prosperous and attractive to emigrants with capital. Its enterprising ambition was encouraged by taking fresh country north and south. In the latter direction, explored by Mitchell in 1834 and 1836, lay Australia Felix, now Victoria, including the well-watered, thicklywooded country of Gipps' Land. Governor Sir George Gipps, 1838 to 1846, was growing fast This district, then called Port Phillip, in the time of into a position claiming independence. Melbourne, which began with a few huts on the banks of the Yarra-Yarra in 1835, was in 1840 a busy town of 6000 inhabitants, the population of the whole district, with the towns of Geelong and Portland, reaching 12,850; while its import trade amounted to £204,000, and its exports to £138,000. Such was the growth of infant Victoria in five years; that of Adelaide or South Australia, in the same period, was governor, Mr. Latrobe, under Sir George Gipps at Sydney. Adelaide had its own governors, first Captain Hindmarsh, nearly equal to it. At Melbourne there was a deputy next Colonel Gawler, and then Captain George Grey. Western Australia progressed but slowly, with less than Hutt. 4000 inhabitants altogether, under Governors Stirling and gold-mining, had been satisfactory, in spite of a severe commercial crisis, from 1841 to 1843, caused by extravaThe general advancement of Australia, to the era of the gant land speculations and inflated prices. Victoria produced already more wool than New South Wales, the Ib; and South Australia, between 1842 and this date, had opened most valuable mines of copper. The population of aggregate produce of Australia in 1852 being 45,000,000 New South Wales in 1851 was 190,000; that of Victoria, 77,000; and that of South Australia about the same. the Macquarie plains, gold was discovered, in February, At Summerhill Creek, 20 miles north of Bathurst, in 1851, by Mr. E. Hargraves, a gold-miner from California. The intelligence was made known in April or May; and employments in the bush or in the towns to search for the then began a rush of thousands,--men leaving their former ore so greatly coveted in all ages. the great Ballarat gold-field, 80 miles west of that city, at Anderson's Creek, near Melbourne; a few weeks later In August it was found hurst, to the north. Not only in these lucky provinces, New South Wales and Victoria, where the auriferous dewas opened; and after that, Bendigo, now called Sandposits were revealed, but in every British colony of Australasia, all ordinary industry was left for the one exciting pursuit. The copper mines of South Australia were for the time deserted, while Tasmania and New Zealand lost many inhabitants, who emigrated to the more promising country. The disturbance of social, industrial, and commercial affairs, during the first two or three years of the gold era, was very great. Immigrants from Europe, and into Melbourne, where the arrivals in 1852 averaged 2000 to some extent from North America and China, poured persons in a week. The population of Victoria was doubled in the first twelvemonth of the gold fever, and the value of imports and exports was multiplied tenfold between 1851 and 1853. ince in July, 1851, Mr. Latrobe being appointed governor, under the name of Queensland, from the original province the last twenty years, that the provinces less rich in gold than Victoria have been enabled to advance in prosperity It appears, from a general view of Australian progress in by other means. tralia. But New South Wales, possessing both coal and iron, is becoming a seat of manufactures; while QueensWool continues the great staple of Aus1 [Edmund H., born in England about 1816, became an Australian stock-raiser, received $50,000 from New South Wales for his gold discovery, settled in England in 1854.-A. ED. on the lower slopes are green pastures, or wheat, barley, and other kinds of corn; above are often forests of oak, ash, elm, &c.; and still higher the yew and the fir may be seen braving the fury of the tempest. Corn grows to between 3400 and 4500 feet above the level of the sea, the forests extend to 5600 or 6400 feet, and the line of perhowever, particularly in Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, the mountains appear in wild confusion, with rugged peaks and bare precipitous sides, forcibly reminding the traveller of Switzerland. Tyrol in particular has, like that country, its cascades, its glaciers, its perpetual snows, and its avalanches. land is also favored with much mineral wealth, including | to a great elevation. At the base are found vines and maize; tin. The semi-tropical climate of the latter colony is suitable for the culture of particular crops, needing only a supply of other than European labor. Meantime South Australia, besides its production of copper and a fair share of wool, has become the great wheat-growing province of the continent. The separate colonies of Australia are still in a some-petual snow is from 7800 to 8200 feet. In some parts, what transitional state, emigration being so continuous, and the country to be yet occupied so extensive. For this and for other reasons, therefore, it may be more fitting to describe the several colonies, with respect to their industrial and social conditions, under their respective names. To enable the reader, however, to judge of the general position of the provinces at a recent date, the following statistics are appended : : Plate III. 16,533,856 15,302,454 (R. A.) AUSTRIA, or more strictly AUSTRIA-HUNGARY (Ger. Oesterreich and Oesterreich-Ungarn), is an extensive country in the southern portion of Central Europe, lying between long. 9° and 26° E., and lat. 42° and 51° N. It thus extends through 17 degrees of longitude, and 9 degrees of latitude, and has an area of about 240,000 English square miles. With the exception of the islands in the Adriatic, and the narrow projecting tract of Dalmatia, it forms a compact region of country, but of an irregular shape. It is surrounded on all sides by other countries, except where it borders upon the Adriatic, which is about one-fifth of the entire extent of its boundaries. Of the rest, about one-third on the W. and N. is formed by the German empire (Bavaria, Saxony, and The Alps occupy the south-west portion of the country, and form its highest lands. They are distinguished by various names, as the Rhætian, Noric, Carnic, Julian, and Dinaric Alps. The Rhætian or Tyrolese Alps enter Tyrol from the Swiss canton of the Grisons, and are the loftiest range in the country, a number of the summits rising to the height of 12,000 feet, and the highest, the Orteler Spitze, attaining a height of 12,814 feet above the level of the sea. They divide into three principal chains, the most southern of which occupies the southern portion of Tyrol, and contains the Orteler Spitze, and others of the loftiest points in the country. The middle or principal chain extends in an easterly direction to the borders of Salzburg and Carinthia, and has many of its peaks covered with perpetual snow. The northern chain is inferior in elevation to the others, and few of its most elevated points reach the snow-line. The Noric Alps are a continuation of the Rhætian eastward, passing through Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia north of the Drave, Lower and Upper Austria, to Hungary, where they gradually sink into the plains. They comprise three chains, a main chain and two lesser chains proceeding northward-the one the Salzburg, the other the Styria-Austrian Alps. The main chain, the Noric Alps in a stricter sense, traverses Salzburg, Carinthia, and Styria, and has a length of about 170 miles, some of its peaks rising to the height of 12,000 feet. The Carnic or Carinthian Alps are also an offshoot of the Rhætian Alps eastward, occupying the south-east of Tyrol, Carinthia, and the north of Carniola. They form several branches, and some of the summits are over 9000 feet high. The Julian or Carniolan Prussia), a third on the S. and E. by the Turkish empire | and the Danubian Principalities, and the remaining third by Russia on the N.E. and Switzerland and Italy on the S.W. The boundaries are formed in some parts by river courses, in others by mountain ranges, and sometimes they extend through an open country. As compared with France, Austria has a form nearly as compact, but its frontiers are by no means so well defined or so strongly protected by natural barriers. It ranks third in extent among the countries of Europe (after Russia and Sweden), and fourth in point of population (after Russia, the German empire, and France). Mountains. Austria is, after Switzerland, the most mountainous country of Europe, and about four-fifths of its entire area is more than 600 feet above the level of the sea. The mountains are frequently covered with vegetation 50 Alps extend in a south-easterly direction through Carniola and Croatia. They present little of an Alpine character, and with one or two exceptions nowhere rise to the height of 5000 feet. They are for the most part bare and rugged. The Dinaric Alps are a continuation of the preceding, extending through Croatia and Dalmatia, and resemble them in character. The highest point, Mount Dinara, from which they take their name, is 5956 feet above the level of the sea. After the Alps, the most important mountain system of Austria is the Carpathians, which occupy its eastern and north-eastern portions, and stretch in the form of an arch through Silesia, Moravia, Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania. They have an extent of about 650 miles, and are divided into three principal groups-the Hungarian Carpathians, the Carpathian Waldgebirge or Forest Mountains, and the Transylvanian Highlands. The Hungarian Carpathians stretch from west to east, through Hungary, Moravia, Silesia, and Galicia for about 200 miles, and comprise various smaller groups, among which are the Beskides, the Little Carpathians, and the Central Carpathians or the Tatra Mountains. This last group constitutes the highest portion of the Carpathians, having an average elevation of over 6000 feet, and its two principal summits, the Eisthaler Thurm and the Lomnitzer Spitze, having a height of 8378 and 8222 feet respectively. In character it resembles the Alps more than the Carpathians, having rugged precipitous sides, deep chasms, snows, glaciers, cascades, &c. The Waldgebirge, or Forest Mountains, are a series of moderate elevations, for the most part wooded, and stretching for about 160 miles through Hungary, Galicia, and Buckowina, with an average breadth of about 45 miles. They are in general from 3000 to 6000 feet in elevation, the highest point, Pietrozza, rising to 7086 feet. The Transylvanian Highlands extend over Transylvania, a part of Hungary, and the Military Frontier, into Moldavia and Wallachia. They have a length of about 350 miles, and breadth of from 30 to 90. Several of the summits rise to the height of 8000 feet. The AUSTRIA. sides of the Carpathian mountains are generally covered with forests to a considerable height. 101 on either side. The principal of these are the Linz and The Hercynian mountain system spreads itself over Hungarian basins. Between this last and the plains of Krems basins, the Vienna basin, and the little and great Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, and the middle and northern Wallachia, it passes through the narrow rocky channels of portions of Upper and Lower Austria. It includes the Islach, Kasan, and the Iron Door, where the fall is about lesser systems of the Bohemian Forest, the Erzgebirge, the 41 feet in less than half a mile. The Dniester, which, like Riesengebirge, and the Sudetes. The Bohemian Forest is the Danube, flows into the Black Sea, has its source in the a series of wooded heights on the confines of Bohemia and Carpathians in Eastern Galicia, and pursues a very windBavaria, and extending south from the Eger to the Danube. ing course towards the south-east. It receives its principal Its highest point is 4610 feet above the sea. birge, or Ore Mountains, commence on the left bank of territory of upwards of 12,000 English square miles. It The Erzge- affluents from the Carpathians, and drains in Austria a the Elbe, run eastward between Bohemia and Saxony, and is navigable for about 300 miles. The Vistula and the Oder terminate near the sources of the White Elster. None of both fall into the Baltic. The former rises in Moravia, the summits rise to the height of 4000 feet. The Riesenge- flows first north through Austrian Silesia, then takes an birge or Giant Mountains are on the confines of Bohemia easterly direction along the borders of Prussian Silesia, towards Prussian_Silesia, and have their highest point, and afterwards a north-easterly, separating Galicia from Schneekoppe or Riesenkoppe, 5330 feet above the sea. Russian Poland, and leaving Austria not far from SandoThe Sudetes is a name sometimes given to all the moun- mir. Its course in Austria is 240 miles, draining an area tains of Northern Bohemia, but it more properly belongs of 15,500 square miles. It is navigable for nearly 200 to that range which runs between Moravia and Prussian miles, and its principal affluents are the Save and the Bug. Silesia, from the March to the Oder. The highest summit, The Oder has also its source in Moravia, flows first east, the Spieglitzer Schneeberg, is 4774 feet high. Geology. The great central chain of the Alps consists Its length within the Austrian territory is only about 55 and then north-east through Austrian Silesia into Prussia. of primitive rocks, principally gneiss, mica slate, miles, no part of which is navigable. The only river of and granite. Occasionally clay-slate, greywacke, and lime- this country which flows into the North Sea is the Elbe. stone overlie these rocks. Iron ore is very abundant here, It has its source in the Riesengebirge, not far from the and gold and copper are found. The northern and south- Schneekoppe, flows first south, then east, and afterwards ern ranges of the Alps are composed of limestone. In the north-east through Bohemia, and then enters Saxony. Its southern range the limestone rests upon gneiss, which crops principal affluents are the Adler, Iser, and Eger, and, most out in some parts. Iron, copper, lead, and zinc ores, and important of all, the Moldau. The last, from the length quicksilver are found in some parts to a large extent. the northern range the limestone is in some places covered down, is entitled to be considered the main stream. It has In of its course, and the quantity of water which it brings with clay-slate, greywacke, and transition limestone. In a course of 260 miles, and is navigable for 190. The Elbe the north the limestone is covered with sandstone, which itself has a course within the Austrian dominions of 185 extends in an almost continuous line from the Lake of miles, for about 65 of which it is navigable. It drains an Constance to the neighborhood of Vienna. In this dis- area of upwards of 21,000 square miles. The Rhine, trict a number of beds of coal are found. The central though scarcely to be reckoned a river of the country, range of the Carpathians is formed chiefly of gneiss, granite, flows for about 25 miles of its course between it and clay-slate, greywacke, and transition limestone, frequently Switzerland. The principal river of Austria which falls covered with extensive patches of Tertiary formations. into the Adriatic is the Adige. North and south of this are ranges of sandstone mountains, of Tyrol, flows south, then east, and afterwards south, into on which diluvial and alluvial deposits are also found. the plains of Lombardy. It rises in the mountains The northern sandstone range is rich in salt; the central Eisack. Of the streams which have their course entirely chain abounds in iron and copper ore; and the gneiss and within the country, and which fall into the Adriatic, the Its principal affluent is the granitic mountains of Hungary and Transylvania are rich principal is the Isonzo, 75 miles in length, but navigable in ores of gold and silver. Numerous beds of coal are only for a short distance from its mouth. also found in the later formations. The Bohemian and Moravian Mountain system is composed chiefly of gneiss and granite. Basalt, clinkstone, greenstone, and red sandstone are also common. Silver and lead mines are extensively worked, also mines of zinc and iron. Coal is abundant here. The plain and hilly parts of the country belong chiefly to the middle or Miocene period of the Tertiary formation, and comprise sand, gravel, clay-marl, &c. Rivers. As the highlands of Austria form part of the great water-shed of Europe which divides the waters flowing northward into the North Sea or the Baltic, from those flowing southward or eastward into the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, its rivers flow in three different directions-northward, southward, and eastward. With the exception of the small streams belonging to it which fall into the Adriatic, all its rivers have their mouths in other countries, and its principal river, the Danube, has also its source in another country. This, which after the Volga is the largest river of Europe, rises in the grand duchy of Baden, flows through Würtemberg and Bavaria, and is already navigable when it enters Austria, on the borders of which it receives the Inn, a river which has as large a body of water as itself. It has a course of about 820 miles within the country, which is about 48 per cent. of its entire length. Where it enters it is 898 feet above the level of the sea, and where it leaves only 132 feet. It has thus a fall within the country of 766 feet, and is at first a very rapid stream, but latterly a very slow one. Its affluents, after the Inn, are at first generally small, the principal being the Traun, the Enns, and the March. In Hungary it receives from the Carpathians the Waag, Neutra, Gran, and Eipel; and from the Alps the Drave, the Mur, and the Save. But the principal affluent of the Danube is the Theiss, which rises in the Carpathians, and drains nearly the whole of the eastern half of Hungary. The country drained by the Danube is formed into several basins by the mountains approaching its banks Lakes. numerous, and some of them are of great exThe lakes and marshes of Austria are very tent. The lakes lie principally in the valleys among the Alps, and the marshes are frequent along the courses of the rivers. in Hungary, which is about 46 miles in length by 18 in breadth, and, including the swamps in connection with it, The largest lake of Austria is the Balaton, in Hungary, is 18 miles in length, by from 4 to 7 in breadth, covers an area of 500 square miles. The Neusiedler, also and covers an area of 106 square miles. Among the many smaller ones the principal are the Traunsee, Attersee, Wörthersee, Mondsee, &c. No other European country equals Austria in the number and value of its mineral springs. No fewer than 1500 of these are reckoned, and they occur principally in Bohemia and Hungary. In the former are Karlsbad, Marienbad, Franzensbad, Teplitz, Püllna, and Seidlitz. Climate. great extent, and the great differences in the The climate of Austria, in elevation of its surface, is very various. consequence of its divide it into three distinct zones. extends to 46° N. lat., and includes Dalmatia and the It is usual to country along the coast, together with the southern porThe most southern tions of Tyrol and Carinthia, Croatia, Slavonia, and the most southern part of Hungary. Here the seasons are mild and equable, the winters are short (snow seldom falling), and the summers last for five months. The vine and maize are everywhere cultivated, as well as olives and other southern products. In the south of Dalmatia tropical plants flourish in the open air. The central zone lies between 46° and 49° N. lat., and includes Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Central and Northern Tyrol, Southern Moravia, a part of Bohemia, the main portion of Hungary, and Transylvania. The seasons are more marked here than in the preceding. The winters are longer and more severe, and the summers are hotter. The vine and maize are cultivated in favorable very various. In situations, and wheat and other kinds of grain are generally grown. The northern zone embraces the territory lying north of 49° N. lat., comprising Bohemia, Northern Moravia, Silesia, and Galicia. The winters are here long and cold; the vine and maize are no longer cultivated, the principal crops being wheat, barley, oats, rye, hemp, and fax. The mean annual temperature ranges from about 59° in the south to 48° in the north. In some parts of the country, however, it is as low as 46° 40′ and even 36°. Vienna the average annual temperature is 50°, the highest temperature being 94°, the lowest 2° Fahr. In general the eastern part of the country receives less rain than the western. In the south the rains prevail chiefly in spring and autumn, and in the north and central parts during summer. Storms are frequent in the region of the South Alps and along the coast. In some parts in the vicinity of the Alps the rainfall is excessive, sometimes exceeding 60 inches. It is less among the Carpathians, where it usually varies from 30 to 40 inches. In other parts the rainfall usually averages from 20 to 24 inches, but in the plains of Hungary it is as low as 16. From the varied character of its climate and Flora. soil the vegetable productions of Austria are It has floras of the plains, the hills, and the mountains; an alpine flora, and an arctic flora; a flora of marshes, and a flora of steppes; floras peculiar to the clay, the chalk, the sandstone, and the slate formations. The number of different species is estimated at 12,000, of which one-third are phanerogamous, or flowering plants, and two-thirds cryptogamous, or flowerless. The crownland of Lower Austria far surpasses in this respect the other divisions of the country, having about four-ninths of the whole, and not less than 1700 species of flowering plants. Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, and Galicia are the principal corn-growing regions of the country; and Tyrol, Salzburg, and Upper Styria are the principal pastoral regions. The animal kingdom embraces, besides the Animals. usual domestic animals (as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, goats, asses, &c.), wild boars, deer, wild goats, hares, &c.; also bears, wolves, lynxes, foxes, wild cats, jackals, otters, beavers, polecats, martens, weasels, and the like. Eagles and hawks are common, and many kinds of singing birds. The rivers and lakes abound in different kinds of fish, which are also plentiful on the sea-coast. Among insects the bee and the silkworm are the most useful. The leech forms an article of trade. In all there are 90 different species of mammals, 248 species of birds, 377 of fishes, and more than 13,000 of insects. Divisions. Austria comprises five countries, each bearing the name of kingdom-viz., Hungary, Bohemia, Galicia, Illyria, and Dalmatia; one archduchy, Austria; one principality, Transylvania; one duchy, Styria; one margraviate, Moravia; and one county, Tyrol. These are now divided into provinces, which are called crown-lands, and of which at present there are 18, 14 being in Austria Proper, and 4 in Hungary. The following table gives the area and civil population of the different crown-lands in 1857 and at 31st December, 1869. The first 14 crown-lands constitute Austria Proper, and the remaining 4 form the kingdom of Hungary. Görtz, Istria, and Trieste are also known as the Maritime District. Lower Austria....... 7,630 Population in 1869. Total. 151,410 Females. 1,681,697 967,087 987,164 1,954,251 4,617 707,400 358,117 373.462 2,757 146,760 73,468 8,642 1,056,773 555,289 3,992 332,456 161,519 174,881 3,844 451,941 220,009 243,264 3,074 520,978 288,293 293,786 449,666 2,672,440 77,942 Moravia... 255,919 4,923 404,199 220,169 82,605 9,900,785 5,499,462 21,159 1,926,797 1,051,145 Croatia and Sla7,421 876,009 495,962 vonia.... Military Frontier. 12,919 1,064,922 606,991 Total. 878,907 5,106,069 A more recent report states that the population of Austria Proper had risen from 20,210,000 in 1869 to 20,970,000 in 1873 the male population having increased from 9,810,000 to 10,200,000, and the females from 10,400,000 to 10,770,000. The most thickly populated crown-land is Silesia; the most thinly, Salzburg. The civil population of Austria in 1818 amounted to 29,769,263, in 1830 it had in- Population. creased to 34,082,469, in 1842 to 35,295,957, in 1857 to 37,339,012, and in 1869 to 35,634,858. Between the two last dates it had lost its Lombardo-Venetian territories, with more than 5,000,000 inhabitants. In Austria Proper the number of births in 1869 was 812,474, of which 419,374 were males and 393,100 females; 699,047 were legitimate, and 113,427 illegitimate, and 17,114 were still-born. The number of deaths among children up to 5 years of age was 281,643-152,294 being males, and 129,349 females. The number of marriages that took place during that year was 208,787, of which 164,018 were between parties neither of whom had been previously married; 8670 between parties tween widowers and unmarried females, and 12,566 beboth of whom had been previously married; 23,533 between widows and unmarried males. The total number of deaths during 1869 was 583,995, of which 302,104 were males and 281,891 females. Of these the ages of 28 males and 40 females are given as over 100 years. Violent deaths carried off 5988 males and 1939 females, of whom 1110 males and 265 females had committed suicide, 244 males and 82 females were murdered, and 4 males executed. In Austria Proper there were 738 cities and large towns, 1270 market-towns, 52,919 villages, and 2,766,314 inhabited and 121,045 uninhabited houses. In Hungary there were 189 cities and large towns, 769 market-towns, 16,373 villages, and 2,450,213 houses. The cities containing more than 100,000 inhabitants in 1869 were Vienna (833,855), Pesth (201,911), and Prague (157,275). Seven cities contained between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants; 42 between 20,000 and 50,000; and 90 between 10,000 and 20,000. The population of Austria is made up of a number of distinct races, differing from each other in manners, customs, language, and religion, and united together only by living under the same government. The most numerous race is the German, amounting to 9,000,000, and forming 25 per cent. of the entire population. They are found more or less in all the crownlands, but are most numerous in Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, and Northern Tyrol. The different Slavonic races number together 16,540,000, or 46 per cent. The principal Slavonic races are-in the north, the Czechs and Moravians (4,480,000), who, together with the Slovacks in the Western Carpathians (1,940,000), fərm 18 per cent. of the entire population, and the Poles (2,370,000) and the Ruthens (3,360,000) occupying Galicia; and in the south, the Slovens (1,220,000), the Croats (1,520,000), and the Serbians (1,651,000). The northern Slavonians are found chiefly in Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, and the north of Hungary; the southern in Carniola, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, and the Military Frontier. The Magyars or Hungarians occupy chiefly Hungary and Transylvania, and number 5,590,000, or 16 per cent. of the whole population. The Rumäni or Wallachians number 2,940,000, or over 8 per cent.; the Jews, 1,105,000, or 3 per cent.; the Italians, 515,000, or 14 per cent.; and the gipsies, 140,000. The rest consist of Armenians, Bulgarians, Albanians, Greeks, &c. Races. Austria has always remained strongly at781,579 tached to the Roman Catholic Church. Her Religion. 576,020 1,131,309 sovereigns, however, have in general resisted the temporal 336,400 pretensions of the popes, and reserved to themselves cer463,273 tain important rights, such as the imposing of taxes on 582,079 | church property, the nomination of bishops and archbishops, and the option of restricting, or even prohibiting, the circulation of Papal bulls. About two-thirds of the 1,049,691 1,997,897 people, or nearly 24,000,000, profess the Roman Catholie religion. If, however, we deduct the kingdom of Hunand Galicia, where less than one-half of the people gary 222,617 442,796 are Roman Catholics, the proportion in the rest of the 5,618,161 11,117,623 country is much increased. In some parts the proportion to the entire population is as high as 90 to 98 per cent. The Greek Catholics number in Austria Proper 2,342,168 (almost all in Galicia), and in Hungary 1,599,628. The Eastern Greek Church numbers 461,511 adherents in Aus tria. and 2,589,319 in Hungary. Of the Protestant de 511,581 269,007 2,757,498 5,418,016 256,045 511,964 1,050,582 2,101,727 501,644 997,606 593,380 1,200,371 239,637 31,992,954 17,467,598 18,167,260 35,634.858 nominations, the Lutherans are more numerous in the western half of the empire, the Calvinists in the eastern. The numbers are-in Austria Proper, Lutherans, 252,327, and Calvinists, 111,935; in Hungary, Lutherans, 1,365,835, Calvinists, 2,143,178. The principal other religions are the Jewish, 1,375,861 (nearly half of them in Galicia); Armenian, 10,133; Unitarian, 55,079 (nearly all in Transylvania). The Catholic Church (including the Greek and Armenian Catholics) has 11 archbishops, 24 suffragan bishops, 2 vicariate bishops, and 1 military bishop, in Austria Proper, and 5 archbishops and 23 bishops in Hungary. Altogether there are about 34,000 ecclesiastics, and 950 convents, with 8500 monks and 5700 nuns. The Oriental Greek Church has, in Austria Proper, 3 bishops (1 in Buckowina and 2 in Dalmatia), and in Hungary, the patriarch of Karlowitz, the archbishop of Herrmannstadt, and 8 bishops, with, in all, 4000 priests, and 40 convents, with 300 monks. Previous to 1848 Austria was very far behind Education. in the matter of education; but since that time great improvements have been effected, and an entire change has taken place. This subject now receives the greatest attention; schools of all kinds have been established throughout the country, improved systems of teaching have been introduced, and instruction is open to all without regard to class or creed at a very small cost, or even gratuitously. It still continues, however, to be in great measure under the control of the priests, and many of the teachers are ecclesiastics. The Roman Catholic religion forms an essential part of the instruction in all schools, except those for special subjects. The Oriental Greek and Protestant Churches have, as a rule, their own common schools, and where this is not the case, they have to send their children to the Catholic schools. The Jews also, in places where they have no special schools, are obliged to send their children to Christian schools. The various educational institutions may be arranged under four classes(1.) The lower or common schools; (2.) The higher or middle schools; (3.) The universities, academies, and technical schools; (4.) The special schools (for particular branches of science or art). All children from 6 to 12 years of age are bound to attend the common schools. This law, however, would appear to be not very strictly carried out, for of the number of 2,219,917 children who ought to have been attending the common schools in Austria Proper in 1868, the number given as actually at school is only 1,691,349, or about 76 per cent. This percentage, moreover, varies greatly in different parts of the country, being in some, as Tyrol, Salzburg, Moravia, and Upper and Lower Austria, as high as 98 or 100, and in Styria and Carinthia from 93 to 96; in others, as in Carniola, only 56, in the Maritime District 47, Dalmatia 28, Galicia 27, Buckowina 20. The proportion for the whole of Hungary is 88 per cent., and it is higher in the western than in the eastern half of the kingdom. The number of common schools in Austria in 1868 was 15,054, with 32,137 male and 2514 female teachers, 12,225 of the former being ecclesiastics, and 1036 of the latter nuus; in Hungary the number of schools was over 16,000, and of teachers 28,000. In connection with many of these schools there are training institutions for teachers, industrial schools for girls, and trade and agricultural schools for boys. The middle schools are the gymnasia, realgymnasia, and real-schools. A complete gymnasium provides for a course of eight years' study, divided into two parts of four years each. The lower course not only prepares for the higher, but is also complete in itself for those who do not wish to advance farther. The branches of study include Latin, Greek, and modern languages, geography, history, religion, mathematics, natural history, physics, writing, drawing, sing ing, and gymnastics. In passing from one class to another the scholars undergo a very searching examination. The realschools, or middle industrial schools, have been established since 1848, and are designed to impart technical knowledge,. and afford a suitable training to those intending to follow industrial pursuits. They are divided into two courses of three years each, a lower and an upper-the former serving not only as a preparation for the latter, but forming also an independent eourse. fitting for the lower kinds of industrial occupations. The branches taught include geography, history, arithmetic, mathematics, writing, book-keeping, exchange, natural history, technology, drawing, &c. The real-gymnasia are a class of institutions intermediate between these two, partaking of the character of both. In Austria Proper there were, in 1871, 92 gymnasia, with 1647 teachers (518 being ecclesiastics) and 26,102 scholars; 31 real-gymnasia, with 375 teachers (66 ecclesiastics) and 45,290 scholars; and 33 real-schools, with 777 teachers (91 ecclesiastics) and 15,622 scholars. In Hungary there were 142 gymnasia, Í real-gymnasium, and 25 real-schools, having in all 33,000 scholars. There are six universities in Austria Proper (Vienna, Grätz, Innsbrück, Prague, Cracow, Lemberg), and one in Hungary (Pesth), with, in all, 707 professors and 10,900 students. Each university (except Lemberg, theology, law and political economy, medicine and surgery, and which has no medical faculty) has faculties for Roman Catholic philosophy. The theological and law courses occupy four years each, the medical five, and the philosophical three. Of the students, 40 per cent. were at the university of Vienna, 18 at Pesth, 16 at Prague, 10 at Lemberg, and 64 at Grätz. Of the 8532 students attending the six Austrian universities, 1888 were receiving free instruction and 924 were stipendists, and in addition to this, 682 were paying only half fees. The technical high schools or academies have for their object the imparting of a high scientific education. The students generally enter them from the upper real-schools, and the complete technical tutions in Austria Proper, having in all 284 professors and course extends over five years. There are eight of these institeachers, and 3179 scholars, of whom 1501 were receiving free instruction, and 231 were stipendists. The principal of these is the Polytechnic institution in Vienna, which has 79 professors and teachers, and 782 scholars. Among the special educational institutions may be mentioned about seventy theological seminaries connected with the Catholic Church, and a number of similar institutions connected with the Eastern Greek and Protestant Churches; a rabbinical school (in Presburg); academies for law, mining, navigation, commerce, agriculture, and the management of forests; normal and military schools; schools for surgery and midwifery; veterinary schools, &c. There are also a number of private schools of various kinds, schools for the deaf and dumb and blind, orphan institutions, &c. In connection with the universities and many of the higher educational institutions are to be found libraries, museums of natural history and antiquities, botanic gardens, observatories, chemical laboratories, &c. There also exist numerous learned and scientific societies. The intellectual progress of Austria is, of late years, particularly manifest in the departments of law, medicine, natural science, history, and Oriental languages. The majority of the people of Austria are engaged in agricultural pursuits or in connection Industries. with the forests, the proportion varying in different parts from 50 to 80 per cent. of the entire population. The proportion of those engaged in trade or manufacture varies, amounting to 30 per cent. in Lower Austria, 24 in Bohemia, 22 in Moravia and Silesia, 19 in Upper Austria, 14 in Tyrol, 13 in Salzburg, 11 in Carinthia, 9 in Carniola, 5 in Buckowina, and 4 in Galicia and Dalmatia. In Dalmatia about 8 per cent. of the people are employed in navigation and the fisheries. Agricul The productive land of Austria Proper is estimated at 89.6 per cent. of its superficial area, and ture. that of Hungary at 84-4-making 86-9 per cent. of the whole country. Farther, the arable land in Austria forms 31.6 per cent., the vineyards 0.7, gardens and meadows 11.7, pasturage 14-7, and forests 30-9. In like manner, in Hungary the arable land forms 30.6 per cent., vineyards 1.2, gardens and meadows 12.8, pasturage 13.2, and forests 26.6. The principal product of the arable land is grain, of which the annual yield is over 400,000,000 bushels. Of this about one-fifth is wheat, one-fourth rye, one-fourth oats, one-seventh maize, one-seventh barley, and the rest buck-wheat and millet. The principal grain-producing districts are Hungary, Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia, and Lower and Upper Austria. In agriculture Austria is still behind many other countries, but great improvements have of late years taken place. Flax, hemp, and beet are chiefly found in Silesia, Moravia, Bohemia, and Hungary; hops in Bohemia, and tobacco (which is a state monopoly) only in Hungary, Galicia, and Tyrol. Among the other products may be mentioned pease, beans, potatoes, turnips, rape seed, cabbages, &c. Though the vineyards are not very extensive, a considerable quantity of wine is produced, and some of the Hungarian wines, as Tokay, are justly celebrated. The annual yield of wine is about 375,000,000 gallons, of which 72 per cent. is from Hungary and the neighboring districts, 6 from Lower Austria, 5 from Southern Tyrol, 44 from Styria, 4 from Dalmatia, 31 from Moravia, and 2 from the Maritime District. The principal garden products are fruit and kitchen vegetables. The best fruit districts are Moravia, Transylvania, Hungary, Bohemia, Upper Austria, and Styria. Certain districts are distinguished for particular kinds of fruit, as Tyrol for apples, Hungary for melons, Dalmatia for figs, pomegranates, olives, &c. In the south of Dalmatia the palm grows in the open air, but bears no fruit. The chestnut, olive, and mulberry trees are common in the south-the olive chiefly in Dalmatia, the Maritime District, and Southern Tyrol, the mulberry tree in Southern Tyrol, the south of Hungary, Slavonia, and Styria. The forests occupy nearly one-third of the productive area of the country, and cover 66,600 English square miles. They are much more extensive in the eastern than in the western half of the country, the relative proportions being 62 per cent. in the former, and 38 in the latter. They are found particularly in the region of the |