threatening to the safety of the Porte, but their obvious tendency is to affect the condition and the interests of all maritime states in the Mediterranean, and may demand from those states the most serious consideration.

"How is the true character of the vessel to be ascertained? In former treaties the bulk and the amount of tonnage to be admitted had been fixed by Russia herself, and was regulated by what had been found to be most usual and most advantageous in the navigation of those seas. The right of search, for the purpose of ascertaining the nature and value of the cargo, with a view to fix the duties to be levied on importation, was very generally relinquished by the Porte in its practice towards the vessels of foreign powers; the ship's manifest transmitted from the consul's office being admitted as sufficient evidence of the nature of the cargo, instead of proof derived from actual inspection. But the right of visit, in order to ascertain the character of the vessel, and the object of the voyage, has never been relinquished, and can never be relinquished by a state in any degree careful of its own independence and of its safety.

"The Porte is not only prohibited from exercising any interference with the free passage of the straits by Russian ships, but it is also divested of this indispensable attribute of sovereignty in its relations with all other powers, and that, too, by virtue of a treaty concluded with the Emperor of Russia.

"If the Turkish government should detain and visit a ship belonging to any foreign state, the injury would not be offered to that state, with which, perhaps, no treaty may exist, but to the Emperor of Russia, who, according to the terms of the article in question, would at once be furnished with a justifiable cause of war against the Porte. But suppose any such state were fraudulently to send an armed vessel, or a vessel carrying armed men, into the waters of the Turkish dominion, and under the walls of the seraglio, with purposes the most hostile, would his imperial majesty, by the treaty of Adrianople, become responsible for such an act? In either case the sultan would be entirely dependent upon Russia in a matter in which the dignity and security of his government were vitally affected.

"Is it too much to say that such stipulations are inconsistent with the desire of his imperial majesty to preserve the independence of the Turkish empire.

"His majesty's government have always been persuaded that the power of imposing a pecuniary burden upon the Ottoman Porte, as a compensation and an indemnity for the expenses of the war, would be exercised in the promised spirit of equity and of moderation. His imperial majesty cannot fail to reflect that, in judging of the character of such a transaction, it is necessary to compare the sum exacted, not only with the

expenses of the war, but with the means of the power upon which the payment is imposed. The cabinet of St. Petersburg will undoubtedly acquiesce in the principle that indemnities, whether pecuniary or territorial, ought not by their operation to crush the Power by whom they are given, or to expose by their consequences the military security of neighbouring and allied states. The emperor is too wise not to desire, even in the midst of conquest and success, to maintain inviolate that system established for the general tranquillity of Europe, in which his imperial majesty's august predecessor took so prominent and so honourable a part. It is, therefore, with sincere satisfaction that his majesty's government have learnt from the declaration made by Count Nesselrode to your excellency, for the purpose of being transmitted to your government, that it was in contemplation not only to diminish the amount of the sum stipulated, but also to make a different arrangement with respect to its guarantee.' It is by such conduct that his imperial majesty will really manifest his generosity, and his regard for those principles of just and enlarged policy by which alone can be secured the confidence of his allies and the respect of Europe.

"Even if the emperor were not thus to yield at once to the impulse of his own disposition, the same determination would still be recommended by considerations of prudence, as being essential to the success of objects which he has professed to have much at heart. His imperial majesty has declared, that a regard for the true interests of Russia induced him to feel more desirous than any other European power of maintaining the independent existence and integrity of the Ottoman empire. He has also repeatedly avowed, that the condition of the Christian subjects of the Porte demanded his constant solicitude, and that the obligations both of his own conscience and of public treaties imposed upon him the special duty of consulting their welfare and providing for their protection. These objects, at all times difficult to reconcile, would, under the strict execution of the treaty, become altogether incompatible with each other. The real situation of the Turkish power is too obvious to escape the most common observation. The sultan is surrounded by independent states, formed out of his own territories, and with the great mass of the European population of his empire anxiously waiting for the moment when they may profit by this example, and shake off his dominion altogether. Defeated and reduced to the lowest degree of humiliation, he has retained his throne and political existence by the mercy of his conqueror. The disaffection of his Mohammedan subjects of all ranks, whether produced by repeated disgrace or the effect of a gradual change long since in operation, has become general. In this condition, with a broken authority and exhausted resources, he is called

25

reasonable grounds of suspicion and apprehension-it is only by a sincere endeavour, in conjunction with his allies, to confirm and perpetuate the repose which has hitherto been enjoyed, and by making this the main object of European policy, that we shall be enabled to avert the threatened dangers. In this salutary work his imperial majesty will assuredly call to mind the example of his illustrious predecessor; and he will recollect that, whatever may have been the glories of his reign, the last ten years of his life, devoted exclusively to the preservation of peace, eminently entitled him to the gratitude of

upon to provide for the indemnity which is
exacted from him. In what manner is the sultan
to relieve himself from this burden, and by whom
must the sacrifices principally be made? If the
Turkish government be still permitted to act at
all as an independent power, it is clear that the
necessary sums must be raised by fresh imposi-
tions upon the people, and by such means as are
authorised by the law and customs of the empire.
It is equally certain that the Christian subjects
of the Porte must largely contribute to furnish
these supplies. Compliance with the demands
of the government will be difficult, but the
urgency of the case will justify severity. Re-Europe.
sistance may be attempted; if successful, leading
to general confusion and revolt; if otherwise,
spoliation and oppression will follow. At all
events, new scenes of calamity will be opened
calculated to frustrate the admitted objects of
his imperial majesty, and fatally destructive both
to the independence of the Porte and to the
happiness and prosperity of the Christian sub-
jects of the empire.

"There are other considerations which ought to have their due weight in the mind of his imperial majesty.

"I am to instruct your excellency to read this despatch to Count Nesselrode, and, if desired, to give his excellency a copy. The sentiments of his majesty are expressed without reserve, but with cordial and friendly feelings. They are expressed, too, without previous concert or communication with any other power whatsoever. "I am, &c.,

"ABERDEEN."

The efforts of Nicholas have, ever since his accession, been constantly directed to the extension of his already overgrown territories. His proceedings have, on several occasions, excited a jealous and hostile feeling in England. The march of a Persian army, headed by Russian officers, in 1838, against Herat in Cabool, was looked upon as being a probable preliminary to the invasion of our Indian empire. These apprehensions were tranquillised by the repulse of the Persians, and subsequently still further so by the conquest of Afghanistan by the British arms. Such was the state of things previously to the breaking out of the present

war.

"It cannot be doubted that the result of the war has been such as to change entirely the relative position of the belligerents towards each other, as well as towards the neighbouring states and the rest of Europe. This change, it may be admitted, is to a certain extent the natural consequence of an unequal contest; for at the termination of hostilities, characterised on one side by the most signal success, and on the other by continued disaster, it would be unreasonable to suppose that the parties could in every respect resume their former relations. It is, therefore, not exclusively to the conditions of the peace, but also to the events of the war, that we are to ascribe the change which has taken place. In whatever manner it may have been accomplished, the fact is sufficient to justify Some account of the personal appearance, some anxiety on the part of these powers, who and some estimate of the mental powers and have always felt a deep interest in the preservation of the system of the European balance moral character of Nicholas, will afford an established by the treaty of Paris and at the interest alike to the philosopher, the politicongress of Vienna. This anxiety must be cian, the light reader, and the man of the greatly increased when, in addition to the una- world. The present Emperor of Russia is of voidable weakness and prostration of the Turkish colossal proportions, being about six feet power, it is found that fresh causes are brought two or three inches high, and possessing a into action which are obviously calculated to great breadth of chest and shoulders. His hasten and ensure its utter dissolution. The features are handsome, his face being of the evils attending upon uncertainty, expectation, Grecian cast; and the general expression of and alarm must be universally felt throughout it that of calmness, coldness, and dignity. Europe. Encouragement will be afforded to The glance of his eye is singularly comprojects the most adverse to the general tranquillity; and the different powers, so far from manding. Many writers declare that it is disarming, will probably augment their warlike absolutely magnetic. A Russian noble, preparations, already too extensive for a state Ivan Golovin, has said of him, "His eve of peace. is that of a despot; and nothing delights bim so much as to see people stand in awe of him. The man who looks at him with a

"It is only by a frank and cordial desire on the part of his imperial majesty to remove all

steady eye, will never be one of his favour-says the account, "were quite shocked on ites." Amongst other anecdotes of the beholding him again, as he looked twenty same kind it is related, that when Nicholas years older than when they had seen him at landed suddenly at Stockholm, without Cronstadt a few months before. He, so being announced, a Swedish admiral, who conspicuous for his erect carriage, now apdid not recognise him, got mixed with the pears stooped with age and infirmity. A throng of his attendants. The emperor, pertinacious liver complaint and a disease in turning suddenly round, fixed a searching the leg, with, what is still worse, 'a mind glance on the face of the mariner. The ad- diseased,' had, in these few months, wrought miral was so disconcerted and impressed by this sad change. His majesty takes very the commanding gaze fixed upon him, that little sustenance: he is restricted in his diet he involuntarily uncovered his head; and to the wing of a fowl, a little weak tea, or an afterwards observed, "What a devil of a occasional glass of champagne, diluted with man! and what eyes! On my faith, as a water." sailor, I never saw his equal!" Mr. Thompson, in his Life in Russia, makes mention of these wonderful eyes. He observes, "At Tsarkoe Selo I had the fortune to meet the emperor in a retired garden, en neglige; I say fortune, because, demigod as he is, it is unusual to see him in mortal guise, undistinguished by the trappings of royalty and the proud bearing and theatrical deportment habitual to him. I went at his side without recognising him in his loose surtout and travelling cap, strolling along in contemplation; and it was not till our eyes met, that I felt his presence-yes, felt is the only applicable term; for it is impossible to withstand his eagle glance without an undefinable sensation of awe." It is said, that his mouth sometimes smiles, but his eyes never. They are as cold, stern, and unsympathising as those of the fabled sphinx of Thebes. Like the sphinx, he also has proposed a question difficult to be solved; but England and France will doubtless play the part of Edipus, and answer his riddle. Colonel Cameron observes, "that if any human being was ever qualified for a monarch by the exterior advantages of majestic figure and high and kingly bearing, it is the Emperor Nicholas."

Such was Nicholas in appearance: the anxiety of recent events, and the fear of a disastrous termination of his unjust schemes, have however wrought a remarkable change in the autocrat. A writer in the Times newspaper gives an account of the arrival in their native country of some English engineers, who had been employed in the Russian service. Previous to their return, they had to pass eight days at St. Petersburg, during which period they accidentally saw Nicholas.." Some of them,"

The Marquis de Custine thus describes her, we presume rather as she was, than as she is :-"I saw the empress rapidly descending the flight of steps in

It is said that Nicholas affects, in some matters, to imitate the great Napoleon; but though a man of far more than average intellect, he will not for a moment stand comparison with that extraordinary individual. Nicholas is indefatigable in his attention to business: he controls and inspects every department of the state affairs himself, and frequently travels from place to place with so much rapidity, and makes his appearance at different government offices at times when he is so little expected, that, to his astonished officials, he seems almost to possess the power of ubiquity. The absolute despotism pervading every branch of his government depends almost entirely on his personal activity and intellectual energy. It must be admitted that this is but a frail support against the dangers that now threaten the colossal but unstable fabric both from within and without. The constitution of every despotic government may be likened to the house built upon sand spoken of in the scripture parable. When the rain falls, and the wind arises, and the storm beats heavily against that house, it falls to ruin. The mansion built upon the rock that resists the hurricane,-that stands firm amidst political troubles at home, and startling wars abroad,-is the state whose constitution is based upon justice, and whose soil is imprest by the feet of the genius of freedom.

Nicholas is described as a kind husband and father. His attention to his invalid empress, who for many years has been suffering from a nervous affection, is very great. He treats her with compassionate affection, and has sometimes carried her in his arms up the staircase to her chamber.* On the other hand, his adulteries are defront of the pretty English-looking habitation which the emperor built in the magnificent park of Peterhoff, in the style of those villas of Gothic architecture so

has given him a taste for cruelty. The Russians say that it requires an iron hand to govern them, but that the hand should

but he has forgotten the glove." It must further be admitted, that though the emperor rules with a sleepless despotism, that he directs his great energies to the advancement of his country. He has done much towards the introduction into it of manufactures, the arts, and improved modes of agriculture. As a statesman he is utterly without principle: always ready to obtain the objects of his crafty ambition by the sacrifice of his honour. He is an adept in prevarication; and while pledging his word as "a gentleman," can descend to the meanness of falsehood.

scribed as being numerous, and in some cases heartless. He usually keeps at least one mistress; but that, we presume, is to be regarded as a matter of course for a Russian be gloved. Nicholas has the iron hand, emperor. Indeed, until the reign of George III., few English sovereigns were without their one or two mistresses. Nicholas is sometimes very affable and condescending, especially towards foreigners of ability. It goes far towards creating him a good name in Europe-a point on which he is very susceptible. He is, however, harsh and cruel, and frequently presides in person at military executions. It is said he never alters sentences, except to add to their severity. Of course, he did not originate the barbarous punishments of the knout and the plitt, but he sanctions the continuance of them in all their hideous severity. The infliction of Nicholas has four sons and two daughters. the knout is a torture infinitely worse than The Grand Duke Alexander, the heir to the the rack, and the wretched victims frequently throne, born 1818. He is described (we die under it. They are carried away to the sincerely hope truly so) as graceful and hospital with the blood gushing in all direc- pensive in his manners, and amiable in his tions from the lacerated green and blue disposition. The Grand Duke Constantine, flesh, and frequently with their bones broken born 1827: his disposition is said to resemby the strokes of the dreadful instrument. ble that of the tyrannical uncle whose name Barbarous punishments bespeak a savage he bears. Nicholas, born 1831; and Mination and a merciless prince. If Nicho- chael, born 1832. The Grand Duchess las possessed a heart open to the faintest Maria, the emperor's eldest daughter, was approaches of compassion-susceptible to born in 1819, married in 1839 to the Duke the most feeble throbbings of humanity-de Leuchtenberg, and is now a widow. The he could not permit the continuance of these cruelties. Nevertheless, he has signed hundreds of warrants sanctioning their infliction.

Of the moral character of such a man it is impossible to speak otherwise than in language of condemnation. Ivan Golovin (the Russian noble whose work has been already quoted), however, after bitterly condemning the emperor, says-" Notwithstanding all that I have said, I do not think Nicholas is a tyrant by nature, but only from conviction. He is persuaded that if he acted otherwise, public affairs could not succeed. The habit of governing upon this principle numerous on the banks of the Thames near Twickenham. The empress is tall and slender, and singularly graceful; her walk is quick, light, yet noble. She has certain motions of the hands and arms, certain attitudes and movements of the head, not to be forgotten. She was dressed in white, and wore a little white bonnet. Her eyes had a melancholy expression about them, yet sweet and serene; her face was surrounded by the folds of a lace veil; a transparent scarf was draped about her shoulders, completing a most elegant morning toilette."

That tyranny is an unavoidable necessity is the common conventional idea amongst the educated

i

Grand Duchess Olga, the second daughter of the emperor, was born 1822. She is represented as very fair, and one of the most beautiful of her sex; but her health is extremely delicate.

A word or two respecting the most distinguished official persons attached to the service of the Russian court may be both appropriate and acceptable. Charles Albert, Count Nesselrode, the chief adviser of the emperor, is regarded as one of the most able statesmen of Europe.† He is now (1854) at the advanced age of eighty-four, and cannot, therefore, be expected long to direct the measures of his sovereign. Count classes in Russia. They hold, that the people can only be ruled despotically; and that if the rod of iron were withdrawn, they would become unmanageable. With such an opinion we cannot coincide, nor do we think it does much credit to the judgment of those who entertain it.

"We were told the other night, that the conduct of Count Nesselrode was fraudulent. Now, that is a very strong expression. Count Nesselrode, for nearly fifty years, has sustained a great reputation, and is supposed to be one who has administered affairs with great moderation, with great wisdom, and, under circumstances of great difficulty, no doubt with great success."-Disraeli.

Gregory Orloff, the minister of police, is a Alexander, and other persons of distinction. young man in comparison with Nesselrode, Prince Mentschikoff is the minister of being only in his sixty-seventh year. Evil marine; Prince Paskewitsch and Prince rumours blacken his name; and it is whis- Woronzoff both enjoy high military reputapered that he poisoned the late Emperor tion.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION IN RUSSIA.

THE government of Russia is despotic: the emperor is absolute, and his decrees are regarded as laws. The business of the country is carried on by three councils.

First. The Council of the Empire, which is presided over by the czar, or by a member specially appointed. It is composed of forty persons, comprising the imperial princes, the statesmen, generals, and admirals. The latter are named by the emperor; and all the proceedings of this assembly are submitted to him. The council is divided into four departments :-first, the legislative; second, the military and naval; third, the civil and ecclesiastical affairs; and fourth, the financial.

Second. The Directing Senate, which consists of about a hundred members, also chosen by the emperor, who presides at its meetings, and can annul its decisions. It is divided into several departments, the first of which superintends the general affairs of the country, and the others try civil and criminal cases.

Third. The Synod, or as it is officially called, the Most Holy Directing Synod, which is the supreme administrative and judicial court for all ecclesiastical affairs. The emperor, as head of the church, controls its decisions.

basis of legislation. The result was a collection of them from 1649, until the death of the Emperor Alexander, in 1825, which were published in forty-eight quarto volumes. They were followed by a collection of the ordinances of Nicholas, from his accession to 1832, in eight quarto volumes.

His

The established religion of Russia is a branch of the Greek church; for an account of which see page 15. It differs from that form of Christianity chiefly in the fact, that the emperor is its head and protector. Nicholas is thus the pope as well as the sovereign of his people. The Russian church was governed by a patriarch, but Peter the Great contrived to abolish that office. reason for so doing was, that the common people, not understanding the difference that exists between spiritual authority and that of a secular king, were dazzled by the honours paid to the patriarch, and so came gradually to regard him as a second potentate, whose authority was equal to that of the czar.

The Russian church contains forty dioceses, divided into three classes. The first is governed by metropolitans; the second by archbishops; and the third by bishops. There are four ecclesiastical academies in Russia, besides numerous seminaries. All The affairs of the empire are immediately the sons of the clergy are compelled to be attended to by the following ministries:- educated at the latter, many of which con1. Ministry of the imperial household: tain colleges where the poorer students are 2. Ministry of foreign affairs: 3. Ministry maintained gratis. This compulsory educaof interior affairs, or home department: tion has the effect of producing some learned 4. Ministry of war: 5. Ministry of marine: men; but the clergy generally are described 6. Ministry of national education: 7. Min- as ignorant and servile. The Russian istry of finance: 8. Ministry of justice: people," observes the Marquis de Custine, 9. The board of control of the empire," in the present day is the most believing of which audits the accounts of all moneys expended for the public service: 10. Ministry of the post department: and 11. Ministry of the general direction of land and water communication.

Christian nations: yet its faith has but little fruit; because, when a church abjures its liberty it loses its moral efficacy: a slave itself, it only engenders slaves." He adds, that the Christian religion has lost its virtue Nicholas, immediately after he ascended in Russia, and become merely the tool of the imperial throne, declared that a systema- despotism. The service in the churches is tically arranged collection of the existing performed in the old Slavonic, now a dead laws and ordinances should become the language. It is full of repetitions; is generally