from exercising this right, it may become a question whether the liability is not one which may itself be guarded against by ins." We have seen that in France it is so guarded against.

1852.-The "Instructions" to the agents of the Protection Fire, of Hartford, U.S., promulgated by the Actuary of the Co., Mr. Mark Howard, this year, offer the following practical obs. regarding negligence:

The office justly relies upon a prudent and careful oversight of the insured premises in all cases, and the rates of prem. are graduated, accordingly, in view of the ordinary hazards; but no rate of prem. is adequate to the extraordinary hazard of habitual gross negligence. It may, however, be doubted whether any degree of mere carelessness will bar a claim under a pol. of ins., according to several recent decisions in the Courts. Such decisions can only proceed upon the supposition that the character of the applicant for prudence and care has been duly weighed when the risk was offered; and that the insurer is thereby debarred from any such after-plea as fully as he would be from objecting to the extra-hazardous occupation, or unsafe construction of a building, which had been regularly surveyed by his own agent. You will perceive at once the important bearing which this construction of the contract of ins. has upon the duty of the agent. An accurate and ready judgment as to the character of the applicant for sobriety and prudence becomes indispensable.

1856. Mr. James Braidwood, then Supt. of the London Fire Brigade, read before the So. of Arts a paper: Fires: the Best Means of Preventing and Arresting Them, with a Few Words on Fireproof Structures. In dealing with the causes of fires, he placed first and foremost : 66 'Inattention to the use of Fire and Lights," on which he said : The opportunities for inattention to fires and lights are so various that it is impossible to notice the whole. Incautiously approaching window and bed curtains with a light and airing linen before the fire are almost daily causes of fire in Lond.; and some of the most distressing cases of loss of life have originated from these and similar causes. Children playing with fire is also another constant cause of fires and loss of life. The dresses of females taking fire adds very much to the list of lives lost by fire, if it does not exceed all the other causes put together. Taking off the burning coals from a fire and laying them on the hearth also causes fires occasionally. Reading in bed by candle light is another source of the same evil. A very serious ann. loss is also caused by a want of due care in hanging up and removing goods in linen-drapers' shop-windows when the gas is burning. Flues taking fire often result in mischief, and it is believed that many serious fires have arisen from this cause, which can hardly be called accidental: as, if flues are properly constructed, kept moderately clean and fairly used, they cannot take fire.

It is seen by the foregoing that simple and ordinary causes, such as with reasonable care might be easily averted, are really those which produce the greater mischief.

1858. In Syred v. Carruthers injury done to goods pawned, by a fire upon the premises of a pawnbroker not affirmatively shown to have occurred through the default, neglect, or wilful misbehaviour of the pawnbroker, does not authorize a Justice of the Peace to give satisfaction to the pawner (under 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 99, s. 24): there being no prima facie presumption that such fire is owing to the default, neglect, or misbehaviour of the owner of the premises. (27 L.J. M.C., 273.)

1860. In the case of Hynes v. MacFarlan, before the Canadian Courts this year, it was held, that a person setting fire to grass upon his land at an improper and unfitting time, was by that mere fact, which is construed into negligence, responsible for the loss thereby of a threshing machine, which had been brought on his land to thresh his grain. [9 Lower Canada, Q.B. Appeal Side, 502.]

1874.-Prof. A. P. Peabody, D.D., contributed to the International Review, January this year, an interesting art.: "Fires in American Cities," wherein occurs the following

passage:

There should be in the next place, in the legal provisions connected with ins., an inevitable penalty on carelessness: which, however free from bad intent, is always blameworthy, and merits at least a pecuniary mulct. We doubt whether it would be well to go to the extreme length of the French law, which deprives of indemnity the person on whose premises a fire originates. Such a provision would undoubtedly prevent half of our fires; but with us it would leave some very hard cases, while in France fires are of infrequent occurrence, and are commonly extinguished with slight damage, so that ins. is sought mainly with reference to the rare contingency of an extensive conflagration. But would any essential wrong be done, were the person on whose premises a fire commenced permitted to recover not more than two-thirds of the value of the property consumed? An exception might be made in cases in which it could be clearly proved that the fire originated from a cause that could not have been foreseen and prevented; but the presumption should be of carelessness in the absence of express evidence to the contrary. The negligence or folly of employés or servants should not be accepted as a plea in abatement of the penalty. In all other matters a man is responsible for the mistakes and failures of those in his service, and this rule is founded in equity; for in whatever may compromise the well-being of those around him, a man is bound to exercise personal circumspection and vigilance, unless he can delegate his charge to safe agents. When a servant of well-known stupidity and shiftlessness, who would not be trusted with the delivery of a message or the removal of a porcelain vase, crams a stove or furnace with fuel, and so opens or closes drafts or registers as to make the combustion of the nearest woodwork inevitable, the blame belongs wholly to the master or mistress, who is no more justified in committing heating apparatus to the charge of a dolt or a fool than in giving loaded firearms to the keeping of an infant or an idiot.

The argument here is sound. We think the rendering of the French law hardly admits of the construction put upon it. A man there is legally liable for all damage done to a neighbour's premises by a fire originating on his own; but this risk he may cover by ins.

This subject will be further discussed in some of its aspects under FIRES, CAUSES OF (GENERAL); FRANCE, sub-heading Fire; LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, FIRES FROM; and NEGLIGENCE.

FIRES CAUSED WILFULLY.-Under the Romans wilful fire-raising was punishable with death. It had been so under the law of Moses; and appears to have been so under the

still earlier law of the Egyptians. The practice of wilfully firing buildings appears to have been very common with the ancient Romans; and those found guilty of it were burned to death, enveloped in the Tunica molesta: a garment made of paper, flax, or tow, and smeared over with pitch, bitumen or wax; so that when brought to the place of execution, and the fire lighted, there was no chance of their escaping! [ARSON.]

1240.-In our art. FIRE INS., HIST. OF, under this date, we have shown the operation of the Custom of Furnes, as it was designated, as rendered by the law promulgated by Thomas Count of Flanders and Johanna his Countess. The whole of the property of the culprit appears to have been forfeited on discovery, and he banished. His property was first applied in restitution to sufferers.

1429.-An Act of Henry VI. declared that "If any threaten, by casting bills, to burn a house, if money be not laid in a certain place, and do after burn the house, such burning shall be adjudged high treason."

1545.-By the 37th of Henry VIII. c. 6, was inflicted the "pains of death" on all found guilty of certain crimes, amongst which were the secret burning of frames of timber prepared and made by the owners thereof ready to be set up and edified for houses; burning of wains and carts loaden with coals or other goods; burning of heaps of wood, cut, felled, and prepared for making coals; cutting off the ears of the king's subjects, and divers other kinds of offences against property or the person.

1722. The 9 Geo. I. c. 22, threw the damages sustained by owners from (inter alia) the "setting fire to any house, barn, or out-house, hovel, cock, mow, or stack of corn, hay, or wood, which shall be committed or done by any offender or offenders against the Act," upon the Hundred wherein such offence was committed, upon notice being given within 2 days after the occurrence of the offence.

1763.-By 4 Geo. III. c. 14, it is enacted (sec. 10): "And, for the better preventing mischiefs that may happen by fire, and to deter and hinder ill-minded persons from wilfully setting their house or houses, or other buildings, on fire, with a view to gaining themselves the ins. money, whereby the lives and fortunes of many families are lost,' that the offices might expend the money insured in rebuilding or reinstating the premises "as far as the same will go." This could be done on request of persons interested; or on suspicion of fraud. This power has since been incorp. into the conditions of fire ins. pol., and has frequently been of value to cos. in dealing with suspicious claims. For the full clause see FIRE ÎNS., HIST. OF, under this date.

1789.—In the Reformed Criminal Code of Tuscany, promulgated this year, there is the following:

45. Incendiaries, that is to say, those through whose fraud or malice a fire shall happen, shall be condemned to public labour for a time, and even for life: in proportion not only to the loss they shall occasion, but likewise to the risk of having occasioned a greater one than was intended in the execution of their very atrocious design.

1803.-The stat. 43 Geo. III. c. 58, after reciting that certain heinous offences, committed “with intent, by burning, to destroy or injure the buildings and other property of H. M.'s subjects, or to prejudice persons who had become insurers of or upon the same,' had been of late frequently committed, and that no adequate means had been hitherto provided for the prevention and punishment of such offences, enacts, that, if any person or persons shall wilfully, maliciously, and unlawfully, set fire to any house, barn, granary, hop-oast, malt-house, stable, coach-house, out-house, mill, warehouse, or shop, whether such house, etc., shall then be in the possession of the person or persons so setting fire to the same, or in the possession of any other person or persons, or of any body corporate, with intent thereby to injure or defraud H.M., or any of H. M.'s subjects, or any body corp.,-the person or persons so offending, their counsellors, aiders, and abettors, knowing of and privy to such offence, should be, and were thereby declared to be, felons, and should suffer death, as in cases of felony, without benefit of clergy.

1810.-Under the Penal Code of China at this date, according to the authority of Sir Geo. Thos. Staunton, Bart., F.R.S., the punishment of a person who accidentally set fire to his house was 40 blows; but if the fire spread to the gate of an Imperial Palace, then death. Wilfully setting fire to one's own house 100 blows; to any other house, private or public, death.

1812. By the 52 Geo. III. c. 130-An Act for the more effectual punishment of persons destroying the properties of H.M.'s subjects, and enabling owners of such properties to recover damages for injury sustained-it was enacted that every person who should wilfully and maliciously burn any buildings, erections, or engines, used in the way of trade or for storing merchandize and other effects, should upon conviction be punished with death" without benefit of clergy."

1827. By the 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30-An Act for consolidating and amending the Laws in England relative to malicious injuries to property-the maliciously setting fire to any church, chapel, house, or certain specified buildings, also to coal-mines, and ships, was still punishable by death.

1837.-By 7 Wm. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 89-An Act to amend the Laws relating to burning or destroying buildings and ships—it was again enacted that the unlawfully and maliciously setting fire to inhabited dwelling-houses should be punished with death;

while the wilfully setting fire to churches, chapels, warehouses and manufacturing and trade buildings, as also to ships, was punishable with transportation, or imprisonment. 1846.-There was enacted 9 & 10 Vict. c. 25-An Act for preventing malicious injuries to persons and property by fire, or by explosive or destructive substances. It deals first with blowing down buildings by explosive substances maliciously, which it makes a felony [FIRE PROTECTION], and then proceeds:

VII. And be it enacted, That whoever shall unlawfully and maliciously by any overt act attempt to set fire to any building, vessel, or mine, or to any stack or steer, or to any vegetable produce of such kind, and with such intent that if the offence were complete the offender would be guilty of felony and liable to be transported beyond the seas for his natural life, shall, although such building, vessel, mine, stack, steer, or vegetable produce be not actually set on fire, be guilty of felony, etc. (See 1861.)

1847. Under the Towns Police Clauses Act of this year-10 & 11 Vict. c. 89, sec. 30 —where that Act may apply, any person wilfully setting fire to a chimney is liable to a penalty not exceeding £5; and this does not exempt him from indictment for felony. [FIRE PROTECTION, 1847.]

1861.-By the Consolidating Act-24 & 25 Vict. c. 97-for amending the Statute Law of England and Ireland relating to malicious injuries to property, a graduated scale of punishment is enacted for persons wilfully and maliciously setting fire to churches, dwelling-houses occupied and unoccupied, buildings, manufactories, farmeries, railway stations, public buildings, goods in buildings; or for attempting to set fire to the same. As also for injuries by explosive substances. The punishment of death was no longer extended to these crimes. Transportation, imprisonment, and whipping being substituted. This repealed the Act of 1846.

1865. Mr. Edwin Chadwick, C.B., in his Address on "Economy and Trade" before the Social Science Congress held in Sheffield this year, spoke of the "unguarded practice of ins.," and said that in the course of the inquiries he had conducted from time to time regarding water supply, loss of life in towns, etc., he "found that wilful fires, for the sake of ins. money, are far more frequent, especially in the metropolis, than is commonly supposed," adding:

In answer to my inquiries of Mr. Braidwood, the late Superintendent of the Fire Brigade in the metropolis, and from the best means of information possessed on the subject of the property insured there, I found that about one-half in value is insured. As, however, the larger masses of property in goods or warehouses are insured, it would follow that less than half the numbers of property are ins. But on looking over the fire returns I was struck with the fact, that two-thirds or 71 p.c. of the warehouses and contents were insured. How was this! that apparently most properties were lost, on which, according to the common theory, most prudence and care had been exercised by ins.? I never, if I can help it, adopt any important conclusions from statistics, without inquiring into the particulars which those statistics represent. I therefore interrogated Mr. Braidwood as to how, on any doctrine of chances, there could be more burnt of insured than of uninsured properties? He was extremely reluctant to give any public answers, and he spoke to me privately upon them; and what he said will now no longer compromise him. His restraint was fair, because officers conversant with classes of cases see more, and can judge of evidence in respect to them better than others, and arrive at sure conclusions themselves, which they may not be prepared to estab. by full technical evidence. His admission or declaration was that the difference was not accidental; that the brigade were regularly occupied in preventing the spread of fires, a large proportion of which they knew were wilful. They came to their conclusions from prima facie circumstantial evidence, as to the times and the modes of fires, the recency of ins.-the parties named being in debt or straightened circumstances-suspicions as to the quantities of the stock and furniture consumed-full and high ins. of old, tumbledown, or inconvenient premises-the immediate production of well-matured and complete plans for the rebuilding of the premises, which must have been prepared before the fire. He told me that, from the worthless state of some premises, and from the sorts of ins. effected upon them, he regularly expected to be called upon to prevent the spread of fires from them.

The preventive measures which Mr. Chadwick proposed have been spoken of under FIRE INQUESTS.

1867.-Before the Parl. Committee which sat this year on the Protection of Life and Property against Fire, and the "best means to be adopted for ascertaining the causes and preventing the frequency of fires," evidence was given of a very startling character. Thus Mr. S. J. Fletcher, Sec. of Sun, after 52 years' experience in fire ins. bus., said that his impression, "after giving a great deal of attention to the subject, is that nearly one-third of the fires which occur are intentional, or the result of culpable carelessness" (1326); he afterwards said (1558):

I have endeavoured to get some further statistics together, and I have done everything which I possibly could to refresh my memory, and the conclusion at which I have arrived is, that the number of fires which are now actually pending, the origins of which I am perfectly satisfied were intentional, is far greater than ever occurred before in my experience. I cannot recollect any period of my long experience in which we have had so many intentional fires under investigation as there are at the present moment; in fact, that subject now occupies a very large portion of my time; and the onerous character of these inquiries is a sad drawback to the performance of my other duties. (1559.) We have very few statistics as to the origin of fires. As to the number of fires, they have increased very considerably.

...

Mr. Swanton, Supt. of the Lond. Salvage Corps, gave evidence before the same Committee, stating it to be his impression that there had been of late a large increase of incendiary fires. "There is no doubt of it” (1770). FIRES AND FIRE Ins., StatistICS Other witnesses testified to the same effect.

OF.

1872.-The Rep. of the Fire Asso. of Posen, an Eastern Province of Germany, where the bus. is under the control of Gov. officials, gives the following facts for this year. Its fires during the year were 764, of which 12 were known to have been caused

by arson, while no less than 445 were believed to have been incendiary. This is just under 60 p.c. (598) of the whole; while there were still further 81 from causes unknown and undiscoverable.

The Rhenish Fire Asso., Western Germany, where the bus. is also under the control of Gov. officials-had closely corresponding experience, the ratio of fires from arson and incendiarism being estimated at 59 p.c.

1873.-The total number of fires in the Fire Asso. of Posen this year was 774, of which 24 were known to have resulted from arson, and 427 others were believed to have been either from arson or incendiarism; making a per-centage of 59'5; while there were in addition 103 from causes unknown.

In the Rhenish Fire Asso. this year the fires attributed to arson and incendiarism were 58 p.c. of the whole.

1874. In a letter from Mr. Medill, Mayor of Chicago, to the Tribune of that City, there occurs the following passage:

Such a thing as a man setting his own premises on fire, or a tenant firing his stock of goods, for the sake of obtaining the ins., is unknown in Berlin or Germany, and is seldom ever heard of in Europe, except in Great Britain-where the American reckless system of ins. and temptation prevails to a small extent. But America is the country of incendiary fires-of "selling out to the ins. cos." above all others put together.

The statement here made hardly coincides with the facts already given regarding at least two prominent German cos. In Berlin, where there is a most efficient fire brigade, and, what is even of more importance, a searching inquiry into the cause of every fire, it is prob. the proportion of incendiary fires is usually small.

Mr. John B. Livingston, Fire Marshal of Alleghany County, Pennsylvania, in his Rep. for 1874, makes the following remarks upon incendiarism :

It is with regret that I am obliged to call your Honours' special attention to the greatly increased number of incendiary and suspicious fires the past year; which, I think, can mainly be accounted for by the great pecuniary embarrassment of the times, the distress among the labouring classes occasioned by the stoppage of our mills and workshops, and the shrinkage of values in real estate and merchandize generally. These causes, I think, often suggested and induced those who were over or fully insured to conclude that it was a good time to sell out to the ins. cos. I am reluctant to attribute so many fires to these causes, in number, perhaps, exceeding all the incendiary and suspicious fires that have taken place in the county for 5 years, and greatly in excess of the city of Philadelphia; the fire marshal of that city only reported 45 "incendiary and suspicious," and 15 "unknown," out of the 626 fires occurring in 1874. Your attention is directed to the large number of fires orig. in unoccupied buildings, generally dwellings in the outer wards, and to the still greater number of buildings burned, in whole or in part, that were over insured and fully insured. The over ins. often arising from the depreciation of values since the ins. was taken, and sometimes by the neglect of the underwriter or his sub-agent. The underwriter should never forget "that to the dishonest man ins. is but another name for the privilege of converting his house or goods into current funds at will." "It often means escape from bankruptcy, or the successful concealment of fraud, which, if detected, would result in certain ruin." "Over ins. is the key-note to eight out of ten incendiary and suspicious fires; it is merely a notice to the insured, that if his property is consumed, he alone, of all others that his negligence or crime afflicts, shall go unscathed; it is a premium for recklessness and dishonesty, for every pol, of ins, issued is a contingent agreement to buy the property insured." "Over ins., in many cases, would be done away with, if each co, would make it an inviolable rule not to accept a risk from any person, without having the same examined personally by a competent surveyor, the said surveyor, from time to time, to make a personal inspection of the property insured, while the pol. is in effect." Payment of losses, in all cases of suspicious fires, should be delayed until an opportunity is afforded to investigate their origin. "There is no question that, in the event of an incendiary or very suspicious fire, that class of persons who contemplate such things watch each case with anxious care, and when they see a resistance to their claims, and a deferred payment and the prospect of a suit at law, argue to themselves that things are not quite so pleasant and smooth as in the halcyon days of the Old Builders.' But three incendiary fires took place in buildings not insured. The average loss on each fire was nearly 1500 dols.

1875.-The National Board Committee on Incendiarism and Arson, in its Rep. for this year, stated that 184 reports had been received from stock and mutual cos. in almost every State, and the provinces of Canada; and while the entire reports were not as definite as could be wished, there was sufficient information to conclude that at least 35 p.c. of the number of fires for the year 1875 originated from incendiarism, and 55 p.c. of the whole amount of property destroyed was the result of that cause. The sum total of destruction during the year in the U.S. and Canada was £17,200,000 stg., of which nearly £10,000,000 stg. was the work of incendiaries.

There can be no doubt that a considerable proportion of the wilful fires are occasioned in view of preventing the discovery of theft or other wrong doing. The increasing frequency of destructive fires at Liverpool some years since led to a close inquiry into their causes, by Mr. Rushton, the stipendiary magistrate, when he was led to the conclusion that a considerable proportion of them were wilful: the offences he found were often committed to conceal extensive depredations, by servants or persons in charge of warehouse property. Again, it has to be borne in mind that a certain proportion of these fires originate from the acts of persons not entirely responsible for their doings. Thus, Dr. W. A. Guy, a great authority upon the subject, asserted [in his Address to the Statistical So. 1874], that out of every 1000 healthy convicts 20 will be found to have been convicted of arson; while out of the imbecile class of convicts no less than 70 p. 1000 is the proportion convicted of wilful fire-raising. Hence it is seen that fire ins. offices have a strong interest in the proper surveillance of the imbecile and criminal classes.

The German fire pol. do not cover damage by fire resulting from "gross neglect on the part of the person or persons insured." [FIRE INS. POL., German, Art. I. sec. 2.]

The subject in its varying aspects is further considered under ARSON; CORONERS; FIRE INQUESTS; FIRES, CAUSES OF (GENERAL); FIRES AND FIRE INS., STATISTICS OF FRAUDS ON INS. ASSO. ; INCENDIARISM.

FIRES, CAUSES OF (GENERAL).—A correct knowledge of the causes of fires is a very necessary preliminary to the taking effective measures for their cessation or removal. These causes, at first few and simple, have grown into complex phase, arising from the multiplication of processes of manufacture, or from the continued introduction of new products into commerce. We propose briefly to review certain of these progressive causes, under an alphabetical arrangement. The relative proportions of fires resulting from these and other causes will be shown under FIRES AND FIRE INS., STATISTICS OF. Ashes and Cinders.-These are old offenders. In Seasonable Advice, etc., pub. by order of the Lord Mayor, 1643, the inhabitants of Lond. are cautioned to be careful regarding ashes, cinders, and " warm sea-coal. And the Fire Ordin. of the City of London passed 1667 (the year following the Great Fire) contained the following: "XI. Item, That every inhabitant prepare some secure place in their dwellings (not under or near any staircase) to lay in their seacoal-ashes, embers, or any other sort of fire-ashes; and that the said ashes be quenched with water every night before they go to bed."

Numerous fires still continue to be traced to these causes; especially in cases where rags, shavings, and other substances more or less saturated with mineral oils or other inflammable compounds are also consigned to the dust box.

Atmospheric Influences.-The question why fires at certain times spread so much more rapidly, and are so much more difficult to check than at others, possesses a very high degree of importance and interest. Every one who regularly attends to an ordinary grate or stove has frequent occasion to observe that a fire, which burns brightly at certain times with a certain draught, will often require, at other times, a much greater draught to keep it from going out. In some cases this is readily understood; but in many instances it is in a very great degree owing to causes which neither science nor practical observation knows anything about. The simple fact in regard to the whole matter is that the different states of the earth's atmosphere are a subject concerning which, like a great many other things, science is able to tell much less than scientific men are always willing to acknowledge. There are certain philosophic truths, indeed, in regard to the atmosphere, which are well ascertained, and respecting which no one capable of understanding them can have any doubt. But there are others in reference to which we are as ignorant as the ancient Romans. There are very many phenomena connected with the subject of the air we breathe, for which science utterly fails to account, and among these the numerous phenomena produced by the action of fire occupy no unimportant position.-N. Y. Times, 1872.

This is a subject worthy of further consideration. [FIRES, GREAT, London, 1666.] Benzine-When the great house of Harper Brothers burned for the second time, it was discovered that the fire originated in the use of benzine to clean rollers. The use of benzine was forbidden in the pol. of ins.; but the Harpers proved the custom of using it, as they had used it, to be so universal that the Courts decided it to be an integral part of the hazard- -a fact of which the underwriters had been until that time in profound ignorance.-E. A. Hewitt, 1876.

See a remarkable case of fire resulting from electricity developed by benzine in a dyehouse-sub-heading Electricity, 1875.

Benzole. In the making of aniline dyes, benzole-a substance even more dangerous than benzine, differing from it in composition, in origin, chemical reaction, specific gravity and inflammability, flashing into flame at a temperature of only 80 degrees-plays a prominent part. It is used also as a mordant in calico printing, and as a solvent in the manufacture of rubber goods, combs, brushes, buttons, and even India rubber hose. How vitally this affects the fire underwriter is shown by the fact that there is now in this country [U.S.], invested in the manufacture of such goods, 8,000,000 dols. of cap., and the value of the ann. production is 15,000,000 dols.-E. A. Hewitt, 1876.

Birds.-Birds coming down chimneys, and becoming partially ignited, and then flying to the drapery or curtains, have caused serious fires. Birds' nests under the eaves and wooden crevices of houses have been frequently set on fire through sparks from a neighbouring chimney, and have contained sufficient inflammable matter to set fire to the buildings.

Fires have occurred through the spontaneous ignition of pigeons' dung under the slates and tiles of houses. Professor Buckland traced two fires to this cause. See Builder, 28th September, 1844.

Some years ago a fire occurred in Lond. through a jackdaw getting a box of lucifers, and pecking them until he set them on fire.-Tozer, 1874.

Bisulphate of Carbon.-The manufacture of this is more dangerous than the refining of petroleum. It enters into a great variety of manufacturing processes-the vulcanizing of rubber; the extraction of oil from cotton and flax seeds; the making of spices and perfumes; into silver-plating, and the manufacture of paper and lampblack. See Lampblack.