or spiritual culture of the individual, and benevolence embraces both in view of the common weal.

102. Sincerity (p. 179). "The most thorough sincerity has never yet remained without influence, but insincerity cannot possibly acquire influence."

103. Sense of shame. Mencius said (p. 327), "Men should not be without a sense of shame. Shame on account of shamelessness brings no shame" (disgrace); and "Shame is most important to man. He who carries on mischievous intrigues requires no shame. He who is not ashamed at not being equal to others, what has he in common with men?" True shame always reveals itself at some defect in the exhibition of that individuality which our inborn destiny demands from us through the voice of conscience. The conscience desires that which the noblest men before us have accomplished. He who does not recognise such types, and does not make them the standard of his own conduct, displays a lack of that which is termed a sense of shame.

104. True ambition (p. 358). 'An ambitious man can decline a realm with a thousand chariots of war; but if he is not the man to do this, he declares it in the colour of his countenance in the matter of a dish of rice or a plate of soup" (and p. 296). True ambition arises from benevolence and righteousness. The ambitious are elevated above many vices. Here a yet higher ambition of virtue is suggested, which considers even the possession of a crown as a trifle. But it depends not upon external objects. A plate of soup is something of no account in comparison with a kingdom; it is only the predilection of the heart which imparts to things their positive moral value.

105. Supreme virtue (p. 371). "To let all the emotions and activities be thoroughly proper-that is supreme, is genuine virtue. Lamentation for the dead and sorrow should not be (merely) on account of the living. Let there be no deviating from the path of virtue, and this

not for the sake of gain. Let word and speech be sincere, and this not merely for the sake of acting correctly." According to Mencius, virtue consists also, not in the external labour, but in the state of mind proper to the same. Where the external corresponds to the internal, and equally to all reasonable claims on the part of others, there is indeed attained that which is possible to man; but the acme of virtue is only then accomplished, when the internal in all its emotions and activities corresponds to the heaven-implanted idea-the Divine will.

(d.) The Effect or Consequence of Virtue.

106. The virtuous are able to help the age and lead the people (p. 89). (Cf. Art. 317 et seq.) "There are three dignities recognised in the Empire. Nobility is one, age is another, and virtue is another. At the court nothing is superior to rank; in rural society nothing is superior to age; in helping the age and leading the people nothing is superior to virtue" (i.e., virtue is the best political factor). Unhappily we often see virtue remaining in obscurity, but even there she ought to be both salt and light.

107. He who improves himself obtains the realm (p. 171). "All that which one obtains not by conduct one seeks by introspection in oneself. If one's own self is made right the whole Empire rushes towards him." This is said chiefly of princes. Every failure should afford an opportunity for self-examination. This is true of all actions, especially of works of charity, the carrying on of government, and propriety of behaviour. It is to be regretted that the good teaching here given is not generally followed; there would then be less bitterness in the world, and much more true greatness achieved.

108. Virtue subdues men's hearts. (Cf. Art. 34 ante.) 109. And that indeed because it is inborn in the people. (Cf. Art. 19 ante.)

110. "She spreads far and wide more quickly than an

imperial decree by couriers" (p. 60). Virtue touches a kindred chord in the human breast. Equally the majority feels that every higher virtue has been acquired by trouble and sorrow. One also involuntarily admires the perfected work in morals and religion (as is also the case in other departments) as long as he is not hindered by envy.

CHAPTER II.

VIRTUE IN SPEECH.

(a.) The Importance of this.

111. THE words reveal the heart (p. 67). "What is the meaning of understanding words?" so asked a disciple. Mencius answered, "From one-sided expressions I know how they (the speakers) are darkened; by extravagant sort of talk I know they are degraded; by vulgar expressions I know how they deviate (err); by prevaricating speech I know wherein they are defective." It is worthy of remark that Mencius here only treats of bad expressions. Bad language may with certainty disclose something kindred in the heart, but it is not the same with good words.

112. Speech and the eye (p. 182). Mencius says, 'Nothing in the whole body is more honourable than the eye; it cannot conceal its evil.1 If all is right in the breast, the eye beams brightly; if there is wrong in the breast, then the eye is dull. Hear his words and consider his eyes, how can a man conceal himself?" Although, therefore, Mencius did not despise the speech as the medium of communication by which the human heart is disclosed, he is yet far from placing too much confidence in words. He demands something more authentic, but finds that, not as does Confucius in the conduct, but, strikingly deviating from him, in the eye. In every case Confucius has chosen

1 Cf. Boston Monday Lectures, by Rev. Joseph Cook, "On Solar SelfCulture."

the most certain proof. It is worthy of note that both means of proof were also used as such by Christ. But as a sure sign for judging in the case of others, only the fruits were to be regarded, or, as Confucius without a figure says, the conduct (Matt. vi. 22, vii. 20).

(b.) What is to be Avoided (Negative).

113. Presumptuous words (p. 260). "To speak of high matters when in an inferior position is sin." According to the context, one ought only to think about the fulfilment of those duties which lie nearest. But even to the present time much mischief is brought about by people who talk about matters which are too high for their comprehension. In doing this they neglect their own vocation. "Do not be curious about what is not your business" is an ancient golden rule.

114. "Words lacking reality are ominous of mischief. But the tenor (essence) of mischief-making words is to obscure men of excellence" (p. 200). At all events, this is said in relation to slanders. It is allowed by all that these are prolific of mischief. The reasons are correctly given by Mencius. Speech, which is untrue even when it is not meant to be direct slander, awakens mistrust and arouses prejudice that is to say, it hinders many from forming an independent and unprejudiced judgment. The result of this is that the goodness or excellence of many men does not meet with proper recognition, and is often, so to speak, trodden in the dust.

115. But Mencius himself permitted himself to be guilty of untruths of so-called courtesy (pp. 86, 133).

116. We are warned also against uncharitable suggestions (p. 197). "They who are always blaming what is not good in others ought (to know) how great subsequent evils they must meet with." Consequently see to it that thou dost not thyself that which thou condemnest in another. It is every way a more obvious reflection to think