PART II. VIRTUES AND CORRESPONDING DUTIES. CHAPTER I. VIRTUE IN CONDUCT.1 (a.) In Conduct in General. 91. FROM abstaining from evil one goes on to doing good. Mencius says (p. 333), "Do not what he did not, desire not what he desired not; this is enough." This is to be referred to the conduct of that ancient holy man, Shun, who for a long time dwelt amongst savages without allowing himself to become barbarous through their influence. Emphasis is here laid upon opposition to external evil influences. The same thought recurs also on p. 197, "If men understand ceasing (leaving undone), they can then understand also what is to be done." It is at first easier to cease from evil than to do the good; this was formerly too lightly esteemed by many moral philosophers as a negative or passive virtue. It should, of course, only be the preparation or starting-point of activity in what is good. 92. Diligence in what is good. Mencius says (p. 340), "He who rises at cockcrow to occupy himself diligently in good things is a disciple of Shun. He who does so for the sake of gain is a disciple of the (robber) Chih. If one 1 See Digest of Confucius, p. 59. wants to know the difference between the holy man and the robber, it is nothing else than the distance of selfishness from goodness." Zeal alone is not virtue,1 else even the greater number of evil-doers themselves would be to be praised; the zeal must be directed towards that which is really good. 93. But perseverance also is required (p. 342). "Activity is to be compared to the digging of a well; if a man digs nine fathoms deep without reaching water, he may as well be without the well." It often happens that work, especially that of self-improvement, has been commenced with great zeal and then left suspended. One not only through this misses gaining anything, but also incurs loss, and that the greater the longer the work has been carried on. Many opponents of Christianity have in past days given up this work in mind and spirit too soon, and thereby have become such as we now see them. 94. Beyond this, it is requisite that virtue be thorough (p. 358). "A bad year cannot ruin him who is always making money. A perverted world cannot destroy him who is thoroughly virtuous." Much may be acquired by circumspection. He who takes precautions in a good season can stand in the time of need. Investments or sources of help must, however, be of many kinds, so that if one leaves us in the lurch another may come to the So is it with virtue. One virtue alone, even if developed to the highest degree, never satisfies and is speedily destroyed. Thoroughness, on the contrary, imparts a firm and restful security; therefore is religion better than mere morality, for it is many-sided and central. rescue. 1 Misdirected zeal, however, on the part of ecclesiastics, seems to be an exception, judging from the mea sure of praise dealt out so largely to the Ritualists of England of late years on account of the zeal they exhibit. (b.) Virtue in Things which are to be Avoided (Negative). 95. Indecision is injurious (p. 204). "Where one ought to receive and also to decline, receiving injures one's abstinence; where one ought to give and also to withhold, giving injures one's goodness; where one ought to die and also ought not, death injures one's courage." Where one hesitates, it is in most cases safest not to act. Action always loses its moral value if it proceeds from a divided heart. Whatever is not of faith is sin. 96. Mencius is opposed also to narrow-minded onesidedness (p. 341). "To hold the mean without weighing (the surroundings) is also one-sided. That which is to be shunned in the holding firmly to one point is the injury it does to the Tao; one lays hold of a single point and neglects a hundred." All heretics plead for some single truth, but apprehend it in a one-sided and often most dangerous manner. Although we must keep ourselves clear from such perverseness, it is nevertheless just as perverse to reject what is good because it has the appearance of being such (heretical). One should rather have regard to the various extremes, and seek to supply the defects of each by the others, keeping oneself to a spiritually active, living medium, instead of dead and rigid orthodoxy. 97. Going to extremes. Mencius said (p. 197), “Confucius never acted in an exaggerated way." To maintain a well-balanced moderation in all things is often a hard task, yet to be thoroughly virtuous is only possible upon this supposition; the one helps to the other. 98. Perversity, i.e., the doing of what is right in the wrong place (p. 351). "He who stops short where he ought not, stops short in everything; he who is niggardly where he ought to be liberal is mean in everything. He who advances rashly retreats precipitately." There is really a great deal of mischief in the world caused by the occupying of oneself in good in the wrong place. But it is also often quite an open question what really is the best to be done. Five kinds of considerations present themselves: The object; the surrounding circumstances; the means at our disposal; the manner of applying these; and, lastly, there are the immediate result and the remote effect to be calculated upon. He who does this acts wisely in the great as well as in the little events of life. 99. Still Mencius is no friend to cringing, bending, and bowing; these are all to be avoided. (Cf. Art. 80.) "He who bends himself can never make others straight" (p. 140). One ought not to give way to his perverted nature lest he should destroy himself without being of use to any But firmness is different from obstinacy and selfwill. Firmness is objective, and serves as a universally valid principle. Self-will is subjective, has no mind for anything but its own opinion, and clings to that, neither owning nor recognising its perversity. one. 100. Pharisaic appearance of holiness (p. 375). "Mencius was asked, 'How is it with those who may be styled honest country folk?' He answered, 'Just this, wherein they are so vainglorious: thefr words have no reference to their conduct, their conduct has no reference to their words; so they say, The ancients! the ancients! how peculiar and reserved was their conduct! Born in this age, we do as does the age; to be good may suffice. Treating the world exceedingly well, these are your honest country folk.' The disciple replied, "Their whole village calls them honest folk, they everywhere in everything proclaim themselves such. Why does Confucius hold them to be thieves of virtue?' He answered, 'If one blames them, there is no proof; if one criticises them, there is nothing to lay hold of; they swim with the stream [of public opinion], and agree with an impure world; their demeanour resembles that of truth and faith, their actions seem to savour of moderation and purity; the whole multitude without exception is pleased with them; they themselves hold that they are right, and because of this one is never able to tread with them the way (Tao) of Yaou and Shun (i.e., the ethical ideal). On this account they are called the thieves of virtue."" Unhappily the great majority of men consists of such honest country folk, and that not merely in the country. Christ found the same difficulty in dealing with the Pharisees as did Confucius and Mencius with people of this sort. In the present day it is no easier to bring moral and religious influences to bear upon such wily glib-tongued people. In China especially does this operate against the missionary. The Chinese are always boasting of their ancient learning, and think that they have no necessity to learn anything, but that their hearts and their country are perfection, just as they themselves are. If one speaks to them of other lands, it is said, "That is no concern of ours;" if one appeals reprovingly to antiquity, they say, “The times are changed;" if one enlarges upon the loss they experience, this is explained away as either natural or inevitable; if one appeals to their consciences and their higher moral requirements, this will generally be granted, but they hold these as too difficult-" We are verily not holy sages," &c. This alone accounts for missions being more fruitful amongst savages than amongst so-called civilised people. Happily we now and then meet with exceptions, and China must yet change. (c.) Individual Positive Virtues. 101. Kindness, truth, benevolence (p. 129). "To impart to men of one's possessions is kindness; to direct men in goodness is truth; to find a man to benefit the empire, this is called benevolence." This definition is given first with reference to political life, but it has also a general value, and indicates very strikingly the peculiar characteristic of each of the three virtues. Kindness hastens to the relief of immediate necessities, truth to the moral improvement |