there arise drought or flood, then the tutelary spirits must be changed." We here see the character of the worship of the spirits very plainly set forth. The spirits, in spite of their superhuman efficacy, both are and remain dependent upon men, and are also subject to human weaknesses. In this place we have neglect of duty plainly mentioned. In extreme cases there should be a deposing of the spirits, and that by the prince. Thus the spirits are vassals of princes, the living, consequently, standing higher than the dead; men above spirits, and these only called to the service of man. There we have the caricature of an idea which in itself is right, which is Scripturally explained as follows: The angels, i.e., the celestial, not human spirits, stand in a rank below that of man (who is in the likeness of God), and are for the service, but not at the command, of sinful men. That departed holy men obtain such offices is absurd; for before their day and during their lifetime there was just such growth, and rain, and sunshine, &c., as after their death is to be dependent upon their efficacy as mediators.

59. Besides the tutelary spirits, there are a "hundred (ie., many) kinds of spirits" (p. 232). These are the invisible mandarins of the unseen world, who are just as open to bribes as those of the visible world.

60. Concerning God, Shang-ti, we find a classic quotation in Mencius (p. 206). Although any one be a bad man, if he fasts and is collected, bathes and washes himself, he may indeed offer sacrifice to God." Besides this place, Mencius only uses two quotations from the old classics in which the name of God is used-the one already mentioned from the Shoo-King, that the magistrates are fellow-workers with God, the other from the Shi-King. God had "already issued the decree that the new dynasty of Chow should assume the office of the old one of Yin" (p. 173). After these passages from Mencius, there can be no doubt about one point, viz., that the most correct term for God [Elohim] is Shang-te, and in no case Shin

(spirits). Shang-te is, according to these few places-(1.) The Supreme Ruler, who, as to kings, sets up one and puts down another. (2.) He desires the physical and moral health or well-being of men. (3.) He is holy, so that no uncleanness dare approach Him. (4) He is nevertheless gracious to the penitent. Against such a doctrine concerning God there is nothing to be advanced, as although it is not exhaustive, yet it contains the essential elements of the Old Testament doctrine of God. It is to be regretted that nowhere is there a hint given that He is the Creator; but, on the other hand, He nowhere appears as a created being.

CHAPTER IV.

OF TAO, OR THE UNIVERSAL REIGN OF LAW.

ACCORDING to the Chinese, there is only one universal law that makes itself known in all the unities throughout the course of the universe. Physical nature or spirit life makes no difference. Each follows in its way a fixed, ordered course, a series of occurrences, in which cause and effect, or means and end, stand in an appointed, ever-recurring relation. In the reality of life, then, are there so-called surroundings to be considered which directly modify the result? The Tao regards not so much the results or the surroundings as the means and end, bringing sometimes the one, sometimes the other, to the front, but expressing only the law or fundamental relation between them. In the conduct of men, it signifies the maxims of business as well as the proceeding to be observed in special cases. (Cf. Digest of Confucius, pp. 94-101.)

61-72. We pass by the various kinds of law (Tao) for the sake of brevity, and consider only that which should guide men generally. (For classified titles of Arts. 61-72, see detailed analysis, ante.)

73. The true Tao is only one (p. 110). That is, there can only be one direct way, because it is the shortest line of connection between the subject and its true aim. Other ways are not necessarily erroneous; very often they are right, but must be more or less circuitous.

74. This one Tao is indicated by "an affection for

sublime virtue" [virtue in the abstract] (p. 279). Virtue only appears as such when it is a step onward in the path towards an appointed end.

75. It shows itself in "benevolence," i.e., human benevolence, or that which is from man to man (p. 361). (Cf. Art. 136.)

76. Also in the "five human relations" of father and son, ruler and minister, husband and wife, elder and younger brothers, and friends (p. 127). (Cf. Art. 276.)

77. In "filial piety and brotherly kindness" (p. 301). 78. "The Tao," says Mencius (p. 178), "is near, and is often sought after. Duties lie in that which is easy, and are frequently sought in what is hard. Let every one treat his relations as relatives, his superiors as superiors, and the whole realm will have peace." The root of many social and of yet more political evils lies in this, that men are only willing to do and to see great things, whilst they neglect and despise the small. If there is the honest fulfilling of the nearest and the smallest duties, the great will soon offer of themselves.1

79. As a consequence, the knowledge of the same is also easy (p. 302). "The Tao is like a great road. Is it perhaps hard to recognise it? The evil of men is that they do not seek it." This evil, alas! is always at work, and not only among the Chinese. Men do not inquire about that problem of life which most concerns them.

80. Mencius abhors all false compromises in reference to the same. (Cf. Art. 99 and p. 350.) "A disciple once said to him, 'The Tao is so majestic and sublime, it is just as if one would ascend into heaven; it appears unattainable. Why is it not made comprehensible to people, so that they may daily give themselves some trouble about it?' Mencius answered, 'A great employer does not on account of

1 It is refreshing to find here a recognition of the duty implied in the ten commandments, and unfolded in the Catechism of the Church of England in her answer

to the question, "What is your duty to your neighbour?" Some moderns question whether men have any "superiors" or "betters."

a stupid workman alter or dispense with the levelling line. E (the great archer) did not alter the pull of his bow on account of a stupid archer. The superior man draws but does not let fly; as if playing, he takes his position in the midst of the Tao; he who can follows him."" (Cf. Art. 464.) It is the part of teachers and preachers to present the highest ideal. He who is able to receive it, let him receive it. He who is lacking in endowments will by righteous zeal be enabled to make something of it. The old saying may again and again be uttered even in this present day, "The too hard and too difficult depend upon a deficiency of will." To him who will not learn every problem is too hard. It is so in science, in morals, and yet more so in religion. By all means in instruction let the understanding of the taught be had regard to; let the commencement be made with that which is easy, and be careful also that the eye never lose sight of the subject as a whole, else one is only cultivating superficiality. The history of literature and art as well as of religion is a proof of this.

81. But for the carrying out of the Tao personal example is necessary (p. 358). "Mencius said: If any one does not himself follow the Tao, neither does it take place with his wife and children. If one does not manage men according to the Tao, he cannot do so with his wife and children." In every case personal example effects more than talking and ordering. There are very few men who do not recognise this, but notwithstanding there are only a few who carry it out in practice. Our innate egoism (selfishness) nowhere more plainly manifests itself than in the fact that every one willingly vindicates for himself a ground of excuse, knowing well what others should do, but for himself, seeking to avoid that which is personally disagreeable or troublesome. That is an infirmity which often becomes hardness and injustice.

82 and 83. It makes a great difference to the realm whether Tao governs it or not, and the conduct of officials