by force subdues not their hearts; external force is inadequate. He who by virtue brings them into submission rejoices their inmost heart and really subdues them, just as the seventy disciples submitted themselves to Confucius." It is well known that men only yield a temporary submission to brute force, but, on the other hand, give way willingly to spiritual superiority, especially to moral qualifications. Yet in this case the virtue of benevolence is meant to be understood. Many of the other virtues tend rather to the alienation of hearts. The idea of virtue expresses more than that of cultivation, which plays such an important part in the present day. Industry by itself simply awakens covetousness, envy, and pleasure-seeking; it makes one happy and many others yet more miserable. It is only where virtue, the higher cultivation of the spirit, makes equal progress with material culture, that a people becomes truly blessed and contentment reigns in their midst.

35. Satisfaction of the heart by pious observances with regard to the defunct (pp. 97 and 135). This depends upon the dead being properly interred in coffins. Mencius recommended "a thick double coffin, not for the sake of a beautiful exterior, but because then first the heart of those who remain becomes satisfied." Mencius says by way of conclusion, "To cover over the corruption of the corpse and not to let the earth touch the body, is not that a source of joy to the human heart?" The Chinese even to this present day have a great horror of cremation, and this notwithstanding the fact that the corpses of Buddhist priests are so treated. Underlying this feeling is a simple natural sentiment, a kind of illusion, whereby one thinks of those lying in the grave as being bodily present. Still the Christian faith in the resurrection [of the body] is in no way dependent upon the treatment to which the dead are subjected; whether the ashes of the martyrs are scattered to the winds or cast into the stream that shall bear them to the ocean, matters nothing. The resurrec

tion body has its germ in the spiritual. The soul, by means of her inherent divine power, forms out of the elementary matter of the purified earth her purified body, a perfect instrument for the enjoyment of her new existence. (See Arts. 159 and 288.)

CHAPTER III.

HEAVEN.

ALTHOUGH man is the centre of the Chinese conception of the universe, yet the more thoughtful, and amongst these Mencius, cannot forbear the recognition of a higher power, which projects itself into and lays hold of the life of man.

THE RELATION OF HEAVEN TO MAN.

(a.) Its Gifts.

36. The cause of causes (p. 135). "Heaven produces things, in that it appoints them one originating cause." This was spoken in the first place of parents, of whom men are born in the natural course of things. Yet a universal idea underlies this as a basis. "Heaven" stands here for God. He brings everything to pass, yet not without means; only the first beginnings of things are instituted without means. These are the causes which are ever energising in the world. In and through these the power of God ever works, investing them with permanence, for besides God there can be no perpetuum mobile. It is owing also to the ever-pervading influence of the Absolute Cause upon all conditioned causes that the operation of the various powers in the universe, and their co-operation in a given direction, never fails. Both kinds of causes are necessary to the satisfactory explanation of the existence of things, and especially of ourselves. Science, alas! soon loses the one, the Cause of Causes, in

E

human limitations, and the others, the second causes, soon come too short.

37. (Cf. Art. 14.) The "senses" and the "understanding" spring from Heaven.

38. (Cf. Art. 14b). It has already been mentioned. that the same holds good of the "highest nobility," which consists of "benevolence, righteousness, truth, faith, delight in goodness."

39. Also from Heaven are appointed the regal power, with officials and revenue (p. 254). According to the Chinese view, Heaven lends these to those who are worthy.

40. This is an act of Providence (p. 32). The Shoo King is quoted to the effect that, "When Heaven brought forth the lower classes, it made for them rulers and leaders (teachers), making manifest the purpose that they should be fellow-workers with God." We see that Providence refers not only to the maintenance of the bodily existence, but pursues a higher aim, the spiritual cultivation, that is, the moral improvement, of the people. The higher classes, the leaders of the people, are here alluded to, as being what they should be everywhere, examples to the people both spiritually and morally. Their duty it is, likewise, to bring the lower classes to a consciousness of that good which slumbers concealed in their hearts, and which is readily brought to light and perception by a very small degree of enlightenment. This truth forms that thread of life on which depends the long existence of the Chinese commonwealth. Where, on the other hand, the perpetual rejuvenating of the higher life comes to an end, and the object of cultivation is more or less exclusively sought in mere material interests, there self-seeking becomes rampant, and, as a consequence, that spirit of party which, in its remorseless revolutions, crushes the state to atoms.

41 and 42. "Misfortune" also comes from Heaven, yet man is able to avert it by means of "change of mind," and by walking in the thoughts and ways of God (p. 75). In this the Chinese have by means of errors and per

versions fallen into many superstitions. That the same, indeed, has happened also to Christians is not the fault of the absolute right idea, as it has been declared to be, but of selfish folly and want of judgment.

(b.) Of Heaven's Action.

43. Through this there is "spontaneous growth" in nature and history, such as everything which is apart from or in advance of human influences (p. 235). Ancient Confucianism differs from the modern school of Choofootze in occupying this vantage-ground. Whilst this latter is degraded into simple naturalism, to Mencius there stands above Nature a moral spiritual power which energises in and through her. Now with us offence is frequently taken at this, particularly on account of modern philosophy having busied itself almost exclusively with theories of knowledge. Laws for man's will are almost unknown, because the original moral germs are principles and not laws.

44. Beyond this there is the harmonising of all occurrences (p. 231): "Heaven does not speak. It manifests itself only and alone by means of the conduct (of the ruler) and by what happens." The explanation is given by the recital of the history of the imperial choice of Shun. There we see results put down as the characteristic work of Heaven. Anyway, results in many, possibly in most cases, are not in the power of men; in fact, the most insignificant circumstances frequently lead to results contrary to all calculation. The immediate result cannot always be calculated upon: the heavenly characteristic does not always appear to retain to the end the upperhand; yet this must really be the case if results generally (as in special cases) are to be regarded as effected by Heaven. This necessitates a higher wisdom than the Chinese possess.

45. Heaven effects that which is impossible to man