How unlike these to the Greeks, who idealised robbery and violence, in both small and great, above everything! Yet many scholars regard the Greeks as far higher, if not the very highest, exponents of humanity. The ideas of the Chinese offer a great contrast to these, especially in political economy. The Greek conception is that of a town council by the side of the grand statesmanlike intuitions of the Chinese.

S

CHAPTER IV.

HOME POLITICS.

(a.) The Identity of the Interest of the Government
and the People.

492. THE Government, as well as the laws, is for the welfare of the people (p. 165). "There are now rulers with benevolent hearts and a reputation for humanity, yet the people do not receive any benefit from them, and they cannot be examples to future generations, because they do not use the (Tao) practice of the earlier kings. Hence it is said, 'Good in and by itself is not sufficient to establish a Government; law in and by itself cannot carry itself out."" The laws of the state represent a will. Its difference from the will of an individual is that it is the will of the community, the Government for those governed. As thought has universal laws, so has the will. As every thought is not right, but only in so far as the law of thought therein finds expression, so has the will laws which are the standard for its realisation. Not every will corresponds to the law of man's right will. But as "the thought" is to be distinguished from thinking, so "the will" from willing, or, more clearly expressed, "that which is willed," just as thought corresponds to " that which is thought." The will of the Government, as that which is willed, is the law for the state. Both the will and that which is willed belong together. But the carrying out of this is not so secured; that requires the mind or will of the subjects; the law must also become some

thing willed by them. Because this is never fully the case, the law requires external enforcement. This it finds only in the personal representative of the law, who effects the carrying of it out with more or less power. This power stands in an inverse ratio to the will of the subjects. We may also say that the force which the state exerts towards its subjects indicates the difference between the will of the Government and the will of those governed. In the department of politics this law never becomes so carried out as its sense properly requires. The state consists in reality of several single beings, and its power cannot so watch over all of these as would be necessary to carry out the formulated will of the law. Thus it forms to itself by degrees a modified, and possibly tolerably practical, mode of proceeding. Ministers with the best intentions cannot help the law beyond this. A sound state policy requires a personal representative of the law. The people must feel, and where possible see, that its welfare depends upon the stability of the law and the Government. That which is legally willed thus becomes the will of the people. The step from this will to its fulfilment is then easier, although it is very seldom that there is a complete correspondence between that which is willed and that which is done.

493. "The people are the chief consideration in the State" (p. 359). (Cf. Art. 57.) This appears self-evident, yet it is but rarely understood.

494. Therefore the destitute must be cared for (p. 38). "The widowers, the widows, the childless, and orphans form the poor folk of the realm, and have no one to whom they can complain." King Wan cared first for these four kinds of people when he announced the humanity (or benevolence) of his Government. The Ode says

weal. But in considering the whole it must not lose sight of those who, without state help, must perish. This is often too long neglected.

495. The "old to be nourished" (pp. 179-336). (Cf. Art. 142.) Mencius does not mean that the state is to support all the aged, but to see that this be done by their relations. That was attained formerly by encouraging useful occupations. This might even now be recommended with advantage. Where it happens that the heads of families cannot support all who depend on them, it is the duty of the Government to inquire the cause and to find the requisite assistance. Where such cases can be treated in detail, the individual can generally be enabled to help himself; but where the evil is widely extended, the poor worker with the best will cannot devise expedients; he can neither see what to do nor has he power to do it.

496. "Help to be given the people when necessary (p. 261). (Cf. Arts. 195 and 343.) In preserving the people the Government preserves itself. The home policy can by gentle discrimination secure many friends. For other questions the people generally care little and understand less. Only it should be a wise care for the poor, as much as possible exercised through poor persons, because such better understand the cases and more easily find a favourable hearing. These could be controlled by well-todo people of higher position.

497. General sympathy (p. 77). "The earlier kings had a sympathetic heart, and therewith also a commiserating government. He who with a sympathetic heart exercises a commiserating government may govern the whole empire as if turning it round in the hand." Sympathy opens the heart, sternness closes it. Still great energy is required with the sympathy to form and carry out great plans; the good of the people is the moving cause, and the people, provided they are not passionately excited, have a keen perception of this.

498. Reciprocity. For such a Government the people willingly die, but they abandon the unsympathetic (p. 48). "Tsow had an engagement with Loo. Duke Muh of Tsow asked Mencius, saying, 'Of my officers there remained thirty-three men killed, and none of the common soldiers died. To punish these in the way of discipline cannot be done, but if not, then they maliciously saw their leaders die without standing by them; what, then, is best to be done?' Mencius replied, In times of want and years of famine, there were of your subjects the old and the weak lying about (dead) in the moats and canals, the strong, who were scattered about to the four quarters, several thousand persons. Yet your magazines were supplied and your treasuries filled. None of the officers made a report. Thus the neglect of the superiors is cruelty to the inferiors. Tsang-tsze (a disciple of Confucius) said, Stop! stop! what goes from you comes back to you!" Now the people have only returned their conduct to the officers. Do not blame them. If you exercise a benevolent government, this people will be attached to their superiors and die for their leaders."" A similar thing has been heard of in modern European armies, i.e., that soldiers have shot their own officers in the battle. Rigid discipline need not exhibit itself in brutality. Specially should all set over men respect their subordinates. That is the secret of all power over others, consideration for the least, and participation in their experiences. With this, energy in the carrying out of principles may well be united. As long as the upper classes think that they are a class of men by themselves, and the lower classes are only for their service, the gentle human feeling of these latter will be outraged. Then there is the constant danger of an explosion, a revolution, brought about by the uprising of suppressed human nature.

499. Means by which the Government may win the love of the people (p. 176). "Procure for the people what they desire, and do not offer them what they abhor." (Cf.