472. Theory of music (pp. 161, 165, and 36).

473. Instruments.

474. Performances. 475. Concerts.

476. Ancient and modern music are alike.

477. Discussion concerning the old bell (p. 248).

CHAPTER III.

THE NATIONAL DEFENCES.

(a.) Firmness at Home.

478. PARTY strife is the ruin of the state (p. 175). "A man must first disgrace himself, then it will happen to him from others; a family must first destroy itself, and then it will happen to it from others; a state must first stab itself, then it will happen to it from others." Internal dissensions precede external ruin. Where this is not the case, assaults of foes serve to arouse new life. The inner divisions are often forgotten for a while in presence of a common danger, but too often for the first time when it is too late.

479. Not fortified towns but law-abiding moral order affords protection (p. 84). "Mencius said, 'The time of Heaven is not like the advantage of earth; the advantage of earth is not like the harmony of men. If a fortress (a walled town) of three li circumference, with outworks of seven li, be besieged and assaulted but not taken, it was the time of Heaven for the besieging and assaulting. But the not being taken indicates that the time of Heaven is not like the advantage of the earth. A fortress by no means deficient in height, surrounded with moats by no means deficient in depth, whose arms and weapons lack neither strength nor sharpness, whose stores of grain are not lacking in abundance, if after all given up, this indicates that the advantage of earth is not like the harmony of men. Therefore it is said, A people is not

protected by the throwing up of frontier forts, a state is not defended by steep mountains and ravines, the whole realm is not held in loyalty by the advantage of arms. He who has found the moral law of the universe (Tao), many assist him; he who has lost it, few assist him." The commentary says, amongst other things, "The ancients divided the land, not the people." At this time the princes wished to keep the people to their own boundaries, so they erected the frontier fortresses, i.e., they wished, in a lawful way, to hinder the people from wandering about, and to cause them to settle down in definite dwelling-places. How many means of restraint have been sought by Governments when they have lost the chief means! Small states have always exhibited the same symptoms, and have perished absolutely in their littleness. Now that we have the great states, we see the same thing on a larger scale. Each is envious of the other, always at work fabricating more destructive arms, building stronger fortresses, seeking to increase their inhabitants, yet thinking very little, indeed, about the inner harmony, which is more important than aught else. But, says Mencius, the chief thing is principle (Tao). The strongest forts are often lost through a lack of moral union in the defenders. Proper military preparations are, of course, not excluded, but these are often overrated to one's destruction; they are no guarantee against treachery, deceit, and neglect.

480. A Government which is active in doing good need not fear the enterprise of neighbouring states (p. 50). "The Duke of T'ang asked, 'The people of Ts'e are fortifying See. I feel on this account great alarm; what is best to be done?' Mencius replied, 'If (the Duke) does good, his descendant in later generations will attain the imperial dignity. The superior man founds the inheritance, offers the clue which can be continued in the future. When the completion of the work arrives it is from Heaven. What has the ruler to do with that (neighbouring state)?

Be active in doing good, and that is enough.' Were states to seek to excel each other in good, in arrangements to secure peace, life would be more restful and useful. But attention is solely directed to power and dignity, rarely to the deep moral purpose of national and political existence.

481. The state must receive teaching from all sources (p. 173). "The small states take the large for their example, yet are ashamed to receive their commands; that is as if a scholar were ashamed to receive the directions of his master. If one is ashamed of this, there is nothing better than to take King Wan for an example. If he does this, he will be certain, with a large state in five years, or with a small one in seven years, to obtain the rule over the whole empire." For King Wan's way, see Art. 268. Pride and caprice are ever united with pupils, old or young. The best way to become free of the teacher is industrious study, by which alone one arrives quickly and easily at one's aim. States which will not learn often receive blows from their stronger instructors, neither are lesser corrections wanting.

(b.) Defensive against External Foes.

482. External foes and calamities serve to vivify the state (p. 323). "If there are within no conservative families and worthy counsellors, and abroad no inimical states and external calamities, that state will generally come to ruin." By these the energy of the state is incited and the self-satisfied repose, and effeminacy, by which most of the old civilisations have perished, will be averted.

483. In danger the ruler must either immediately flee or make a firm stand, even to death (p. 51). "The Duke of T'ang asked, saying, 'T'ang is a small state; although exerting all my strength to serve the large states, I cannot avoid the inevitable; how may this be done?' Mencius answered, 'In former times the great king (founder of the

Chow) dwelt in Pin; the barbarians made incursions into it; he gave tribute of skins and silks without being able to get rid of them. He gave them dogs and horses, pearls and jewels, without getting rid of them. Then he assembled the old people and spoke to them as follows, saying, "What the barbarians covet is the land. I have heard that the superior man does not injure men with that by which he nourishes them. What difficulty will it be for my two or three children to be without a ruler? I will leave you." He left Pin, crossed the Leang mountain, and founded a town at the foot of the K'e mountain, where he dwelt. The people of Pin said, "He is a humane man ; we must not lose him." They followed after him like crowds hastening to the market. Or you may say, The land belongs to the generations following, an individual cannot alter this; I will rather die than give it up: I ask the ruler to choose between these two courses.' Modern times are not without examples of princes abdicating, though not with the result of the Chinese sovereign. The reason being that modern abdications do not take place from a love of the people, but as a last means of selfpreservation for rulers abandoned by their people. If a ruler can trust himself to his people, the conflict is to be preferred, in case there is a possibility of victory and of maintaining the same; otherwise it is more humane to flee. Self-destruction is romantic but barbarous.

484. Defensive measures (p. 50). "The Duke of T'ang asked, saying, 'T'ang is a small state between Ts'e and Ts'oo; shall I serve this or that?' Mencius replied, 'I cannot grasp this proposal. There remains only one way. Deepen your moats, improve the walls of your forts, and defend them together with your people. Prepare to die, and let not the people depart: in this way you may succeed." History proves that a small state, where the people love their government, has often successfully resisted mighty powers, and defeated them with great loss.