In opposing the governors of his day, he did not consider that the ministers of a despot can never preserve the independence and freedom requisite for carrying out his teachings. Mencius himself spoke so boldly because he was out of office at the time. Yet, farther, Mencius overlooked the importance of renewing from beneath. The evil ways and requirements of the people were never illuminated by him in the sense and spirit of the prophets. He held that all reformation of social life should proceed from the Government. Of how little use that is without the conversion of the people generally we may learn from the history of the Jewish people under Joash, Hezekiah, and Josiah. It may appear strange that the point of this discussion of Mencius is turned against the sovereign, so that even his execution is justified, whilst the death of a guilty official, although just mentioned (Art. 332), is never advised. Only his dismissal appears to be justified, and no details are given of this. The resignation of the officials, on the other hand, seems to be pretty fully discussed. This democratic feature, as we may call it, of Mencius is certainly worthy of note. Confucius would have often shaken his head at these teachings of his bold successor. The teachings of so important a moral character as Mencius apply very closely to the circumstances of his own time. Yet he surely found few amongst the officials who corresponded to his ideal: his own disciples even appear to have been of very little importance.

Book III.

THE RESULT AIMED AT IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT—THE ORGANISATION OF THE

STATE.

CHAPTER I.

NATIONAL ECONOMY IN PRODUCTION, COMMERCE, AND TAXES.

(a.) Production.

426. RIVERS and streams to be confined in proper limits (p. 126). "Formerly, in the time of Yaou, when the empire had not been reduced to order, the great waters streamed seawards over their limits, so that a great inundation took place. Grass and vegetation grew luxuriantly, and birds and wild beasts were innumerable; the five kinds of grain were not grown, and the birds and beasts pressed upon man. The tracks of the beasts and the footprints of the birds crossed each other throughout the middle kingdom. Yaou alone was distressed on this account; he raised Shun to be co-regent. Shun, through Yih, caused fire to be applied. Yih kindled the mountains and lowlands and burnt them up (the vegetation and grass). The birds and beasts fled and hid themselves. Yih cleared the nine streams, purified the Ts'e and T'ah, and guided them to the seas. He opened the Joo and Han, and regulated the Hwae and Sze, and guided them into the Keang (the great river). After that the middle

kingdom could obtain food. During this, Yaou went three times past his own door in the eight years or more, yet did not enter it." This passage always gives one the impression that the empire of China commenced at this time. In the accounts we have of Shun there is much that is fabulous. (Cf. those collected in Art. 265, also 298.) A good chart of the water system of ancient China is much to be desired. Many questions concerning the geography of ancient times must depend for solution upon local researches. The ancient accounts can only give us hints here and there. The territories of the Yellow and Great rivers contain many treasures of scientific importance, but the researches of Western scholars are necessary to bring them to light. The confining of the waters to proper limits was the very condition of existence in many of the Chinese states. At this day it would enrich and bless many states if Governments gave more thought to the reclamation of the many pieces of waste ground within their borders. The first possibly large outlay would amply repay itself in the following generation. China in this respect is in advance of many European states. In later days it became otherwise in China, especially through the influence of the little politics of the small states. A minister said to Mencius (p. 319), “My management of the waters surpasses that of Yu." Mencius replied, "You are in error, sir. Yu's management of the waters was correspondent to the course of the waters. Yu therefore made the four seas their receptacle; you, sir, make that to be the neighbouring states. The overflow of waters is called an inundation; an inundation is a waste of water, which humane people abhor. You are in error, sir." This management of the waters was only a measure adopted for momentary relief. For a thorough cure of the evil there needed apparently the co-operation of the adjoining states. The flood which was mastered was by no means a great one. Vain service, by which one's own state has been helped at the cost of neighbour

ing lands, has often been rewarded with orders in our own days. We may draw important conclusions from these two citations, namely, that the Government ought to care for the regulation of the course of the rivers, the making canals, &c. It generally lies in the interest of states to increase the area of habitable land and cultivated fields. Thus is the number of inhabitants increased. Of course this is more the case in industrial communities; but industry is subject to many fluctuations, and should therefore always have a sure agricultural background.

427. "A just subdivision of the land." (For details of this see Art. 438.) In China, from old times, the system of small farms obtained. This is of advantage for the increase of the population; it offers abundant work, and spurs on the people to industry and frugality. Large farms, indeed, permit of a more advanced management, but the profits are not so large, and are often absorbed. Many large properties are much neglected. The extension of the population, especially the improvement of agriculture on small estates, must ever be cared for by the state, as was the case in ancient China.

428. The appointment of the times for agricultural operations, facilitating the cultivation of grain and hemp, ordering of nets for fishing, care of forests, cultivation of silk, breeding of domestic animals (p. 6). “If the times of husbandry be not hindered (by enforced service for the state, in the army, &c.), there will be more grain than can be consumed. If no narrow nets are permitted in the lakes and ponds, there will be fish and turtles in abundance. If the axe and bill only at the right time enter the forests and wooded hills, there will be more timber to hand than is needed. If there be grain, fish, and turtles in abundance, and more timber than is needed, the subjects can nourish the living and bury their dead without entertaining wrong feelings towards any one. The nourishing of the living and the burying of the dead without showing wrong feelings is the beginning of the

imperial way (or principle Tao). If possessions of five acres of land are planted with mulberry trees, then those fifty years of age may be clothed in silk. If the time for fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine be not neglected, then those of seventy years of age may eat flesh. If the time be not let slip for fields of a hundred acres, families of several persons shall not suffer from hunger. If attention be given to education and the duties of filial and fraternal affection be inculcated, the white-headed will not carry burdens in the streets. It was never yet the case that the imperial dignity was not obtained when the people of seventy years old were clothed in silk and ate flesh, and the black-haired people suffered neither from hunger nor cold." The state ought to care for everything which is beyond the power of the individual or for which he lacks the needful information. Of course this is simply, as is stated in the text, in the things of physical welfare and moral culture, not in extravagances. Even in the case of adults there remains a difficult problem to be solved by an able Government. The caring for the nourishing, housing, and clothing, as well in time of peace as in time of war, should not be neglected by the State. Every instance of neglect gives rise to social questions fraught with danger. The administration must ever remain conscious of this problem, and keep their eyes open to the welfare of the people. The chief thing is that there should be offered a way of satisfying in a proper way those requirements which will not be denied. The Government has, therefore, not only to provide for the administration of justice and for education, but also, in the first place, for the necessary conditions of human existence.

429. The Government is answerable for the welfare of the people (p. 9). "The king of Leang said, Your serhumbly to receive instruction.' Men

vant wishes quite

cius said, 'Is there any difference between killing a man with a stick or a sword?' He answered, 'It makes no