was surpassed by the expedition of Lieutenant Greely of the United States army (1881-84), which reached 83° 24′ N.—the farthest point by land or sea yet attained by civilized man.

The most successful explorer of Australia was Captain Sturt, who in 1829 traced the course of the tributaries of the Murray, and in 1847 penetrated the sandy interior of the continent. A tragic interest hangs over the expedition of Burke and Wills in 1860-61. After having reached almost to the shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria, they retraced their steps, but reached Cooper's Creek too much exhausted to proceed. There they died of starvation. In 1862, Stuart succeeded in crossing the continent from south to north. Much of the interior has now been explored, and it is no longer regarded as an inaccessible region. The best proof of this is that a telegraph line now stretches from the north to the south of the continent.

In Africa, the basin of the Zambesi was explored by David Livingstone, a medical missionary, who dispelled the delusion that the portion of Africa north of Cape Colony was an arid tract of barren sand. During his first journey (1849) he discovered Lake Ngami. His second (1852-56) resulted in the discovery on the Zambesi of the Victoria Falls, a cataract larger than Niagara. He then explored Lake Nyassa (1859), and everywhere found a fertile land, inhabited by tribes of some advancement, but blighted by the evil influences of the slave-trade, connived at by the Portuguese. In his last journey he explored Lake Tanganyika and the water-system of Central Africa. He died at Ilala in May 1873. His name and his work are commemorated in two missionary and trading settlements, Livingstonia and Blantyre-the former on Lake Nyassa, the latter ninety miles farther south.

In 1876 Lieutenant Cameron returned to England, having accomplished the feat of crossing Central Africa from the east to the west coast. This was done with better effect a year or two later by Mr. H. M. Stanley, who had "found Livingstone"

beside Lake Tanganyika in 1871, after he had been lost to sight for three years. Mr. Stanley descended the Lualaba-the great river which Livingstone conjectured to be the Nile-and found it to be the Congo. As the result of further explorations in this fertile region, a new state-the Congo Free State-has been organized under the sovereignty of the King of the Belgians, and has been recognized by the leading European powers.

The Nile has also received its share of attention from distinguished explorers. Captain Speke, an Indian officer, penetrated the continent from Zanzibar, and discovered (1858) a vast lake, which he named Victoria Nyanza. As Speke and his intrepid companion Grant were descending the Nile after this triumphant result of their toil, they met Mr. (afterwards Sir Samuel) Baker at Gondokoro. Accompanied by his wife, Baker pressed up the stream, and was rewarded by the discovery (1864) of another lake of great size, the Albert Nyanza, which was more fully explored by Mr. H. M. Stanley in 1875. In 1889, Mr. Stanley emerged from the same region after a journey of two and a half years, organized for the relief of Emin Pasha, a German representative of the khedive who had been surrounded by native tribes. Stanley discovered a lofty mountain-Ruwenzori, 18,000 feet-which he identified with the ancient Mountains of the Moon.

APPENDIX.

1. THE CONSTITUTION.

Its composite character-The Ministry-The Sovereign-The House of Lords-The House of Commons-The electors-Supremacy of the Commons-Progress of a Bill-In Committee-The Second House-The Royal Assent-The Privy Council -The Prime Minister-The Cabinet-Appeal to the country-Adjournment-Prorogation-Dissolution-Government of the Colonies-Dominion of CanadaAustralasian colonies-India-The Viceroy-The governors of provinces-Ceylon THE government of Great Britain, Ireland, and the English colonies and dependencies, is vested in the Sovereign and the two Houses of Parliament, -the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It is thus a mixed government,-not pure monarchy, nor pure aristocracy, nor pure democracy, but a compound of all three. In this composite character lies its strength. Every grade of society, every interest in the country, is represented in it. The power of the landed aristocracy has weight in the House of Lords. That of the great middle class, and of the industrial classes who co-operate with it in producing wealth, is supreme in the House of Commons. The influence of an ancient hereditary monarchy is preserved in the Sovereign, who crowns the edifice.

The chief business of the two Houses of Parliament is to make laws, and to vote money for the public service. In theory, the power of administering the laws belongs to the Sovereign alone; but in practice, this is done in the Sovereign's name by the Ministry,- -a body of advisers chosen from both Houses of Parliament. The Ministry is responsible to Parliament for the conduct of affairs, and for the advice it gives to the Crown; and whenever it ceases to have the confidence of the House of Commons, the Sovereign must choose another body of advisers. Thus Parliament is virtually supreme.

The crown is hereditary, and females are not excluded; but the Sovereign must be a Protestant of the Church of England. The Sovereign has power to make war and peace; to pardon a convicted criminal; to summon, prorogue, and dissolve Parliament; to coin money; and to confer nobility. The assent of the Sovereign is also necessary to every new law. But, as already stated, these prerogatives are now exercised by the Sovereign under

the advice of the Ministry for the time being; or by the Ministry in the name of the Sovereign.

The House of Lords, or Upper House of Parliament, comprises Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal, nearly as follows:

Scottish hereditary Peers, who are also Peers of the
United Kingdom..

50

Irish hereditary Peers, who are also Peers of the

The Lord Chancellor, sitting on the woolsack, acts as president or chairman of the Lords. Any Bill, except a money Bill, may originate in the House of Lords. As the Sovereign may create new peers at any time, the number of members of the House of Lords is constantly changing.

The House of Commons, or Lower House of Parliament, consists of 670 representatives of the counties, boroughs, and universities in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, distributed as follows:

The electors, both in boroughs and in counties, are householders rated for relief of the poor, lodgers occupying rooms valued at £10 a year unfurnished, and persons in service who occupy free houses as part of their remuneration. The members for the universities are elected by the graduates. The chairman of the Commons is called the Speaker, because he is their spokesman or

representative in approaching the Sovereign. A Speaker is elected at the beginning of each new Parliament. Any Bill may be introduced in the House of Commons; and money Bills can originate in that House alone. Thus, commanding the sources of supply, it can effectually control the Sovereign. In great emergencies it also controls the Upper House; for a Ministry, strongly supported in the House of Commons, may advise the Sovereign to create a sufficient number of new peers to give its party a majority in the House of Lords. The threat of this measure has generally induced the Lords to yield to the wishes of the Commons.

The process of law-making is conducted as follows:-The proposed law is introduced in either House in the form of a Bill, after leave has been given so to do. It is then read for the first time, usually without opposition, and is ordered to be printed, to acquaint the members with its details. The Bill is then printed and circulated, and a day is fixed for the second reading. The first debate and voting usually take place on the question whether the Bill shall pass this reading or not. If it pass the second reading, the House proceeds to consider and vote upon each clause in the Bill separately. For that purpose the House goes into committee. This committee consists of the same members as the House, but the Chairman of Committees takes the place of the Speaker, and the strict rules of debate and forms of procedure observed in the House are relaxed, to the extent of allowing a member to speak oftener than once on the same clause. After the Bill has passed through committee, it is reported to the House in its amended form, and is ready for the third reading. If it pass this reading, it is then sent to the other House. There it undergoes an exactly similar process-three readings, with a detailed examination in committee between the second and the third. If amended or altered there, the Bill is sent back to the House in which it originated, which either agrees to the amendments or not, and may demand a conference with the other House to settle differences. When the Bill has finally passed both Houses, the royal assent is required before it can become an act or law. This is given either personally or by commission. No Sovereign has ventured to exercise the right of veto-that is, of withholding the royal assent--since 1707.

From very early times, the advisers of the Sovereign have been known as the Privy Council, the members of which are dignified with the title of Right Honourable. But this body was found to be too numerous, and too widely scattered, for the systematic transaction of business. It moreover consists of men of different parties and conflicting views. It therefore became customary, after the Revolution of 1688, to intrust the government to a committee of the Privy Council, called the Ministry, or the Cabinet. Now ministers do not require to be selected from the Privy Council, but are appointed in the first place, and become privy councillors afterwards.

The head of the Ministry is the Prime Minister, or Premier. He used to