The Emergence of Science in Western Europe

academicians Academy activity agrégation Aldrovandi ancien régime arts astronomy became Bologna botany Boyle Britain British Cambridge career chemical chemist chemistry Christiaan Huygens connexion countries course culture Davy Descartes discussion Dutch Dutch Republic early Ecole polytechnique Edinburgh eighteenth century emergence empiricism England English established example experimental experiments faculty France French Galileo Geschiedenis Giessen Gravesande Groningen Guidobaldo Harderwijk historians History of Science Hooke Hooke's Huygens hypothesis ideas important institutions intellectual interest Italian universities Italy knowledge lectures Leibniz letter Leyden Liebig London mathematicians mathematics mechanical philosophy medicine Museum natural history natural philosophy nineteenth century observations Oldenburg organised Osoppo Padua paper Paris period physics Pisa political problems profession professors Renaissance Republic Revolution Royal Society Savorgnan scientific scientists Scottish Enlightenment Scottish science seventeenth century sixteenth century social Society's Tartaglia taught teachers teaching theology theory tradition translation Ulisse Aldrovandi Utrecht vols