connected with Jupiter-cult.26 The calendar of Amiternum records it as feriae Iovis and Wissowa accepts it as a festival of Jupiter.27 Varro28 says that the Romans fled before the Fidenates on the fifth and defeated them on the seventh, and this aetiological story seems to indicate that the two ceremonies, though separated by one day, were really continuous in spirit. Celebrations which lasted several days were generally held only on the odd days of the month. Compare for instance the Lemuria on the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth of May.

Mannhardt29 has shown, by resemblances to the festivals of other primitive peoples and by the seasons, that these were rites of the harvest, of fertility of the earth, and of fertility of women. Otto also recognizes in the ceremonies a series of rain and fertility charms. It seems no mere coincidence that a sacrifice to the harvest-god Consus should be made on the Nones of July." The festivals fell originally in the time before the harvest, which in ancient Italy occurred considerably later than is the case today. It is true that this celebration and several others belonging to Juno became associated later with married women and birth. But doubtless this came about because men connected the sky with fertility of crops and increase of life in general, even as they sometimes worshipped Jupiter as a god of abundance and increase. The idea of new light and the waxing of the moon may have aided such a tendency of the Calends festivals.32 Frazer,33 for instance, says that "by a double fallacy primitive philosophy comes to view the moon as a great cause of vegetable growth, first, because the planet itself seems to grow and second, because it is supposed to be the source of dew and moisture."

A dialect inscription from Rapino,34 of about 250 B.C., gives instructions that a goddess Iovia, who probably corresponds to

26 Wissowa, Relig. und Kult.2 p. 116, note 1.

27 L.c. (especially note 1). Wissowa, however, no longer believes in an original connection between the Poplifugia and the Nonae Caprotinae.

34 Mommsen, Unterital. Dialekte, pp. 336 and 341; Conway, Ital. Dialects, no. 243. Otto, op. cit. p. 176, refuses to regard Iovia as equivalent to Juno.

Juno, be worshipped on a festival of Jupiter. Similar instructions seem to be recorded in the two inscriptions from Rome and Norba, which have been treated in a previous chapter.35

Likewise, in Etruria36 Juno was a counterpart of Jupiter. Thulin thinks that the Etruscan pairs of gods correspond closely to those of the Roman peasant calendar, in which each time the god ascends the goddess descends, and vice versa. Jupiter in Etruria stands as the god of Leo in the ascendency and Juno as the goddess of Aquarius in the descendency. But we cannot say that the rites of Juno Covella came from Etruria. They seem peculiarly Latin.

In the calendars of Rome, Aricia, Lanuvium, and Laurentum the month Junius is found; Junonius occurs in Aricia and Praeneste; Junonalis is attested for Tibur and Praeneste.37 Because of the general agreement of calendars from cities in this region, we should expect a month of like name in Gabii, Alba, Ardea, and Falerii.38 In the Fasti of Ovid39 Iunius is said to be derived from Iuno; but in the same passage Hebe claims the derivation of the month's name is from iuventas and Concordia says it is from iungo (referring to the union of the kingdoms under Tatius and Romulus). Of course this last explanation is absurd. Mommsen,40 however, argued for an origin from iuvenis or iuvare, since he thought that Iunius was an older manifestation than Iunonius or Iunonalis. He traced Iuno to the stem Diov-, but believed that Iunius should be separated from it. The comparatively greater age of Iunius is defended also by Ehrlich,11 who contends that the omission of a long syllable would be unusual in Latin. Against this opinion Roscher42 tries to show that shortening is a natural development. Frazer,43 because of 35 Supra p. 8

36 Thulin, Die etrusk. Disciplin, p. 31.

37 Ovid, Fasti, VI, 59 ff.; Macrobius, S. I, 12, 30; Roscher's Lex. II, 575-6. 38 Roscher's Lex. II, 576.

39 Fasti, VI, 26 ff.; cf. Varro, L.L. VI, 33; Censorinus, De Die Nat. XXII, 9 and 12; Lydus, De Mens. IV, 56, 246 Röther.

40 Röm. Chron. p. 222, note 15; Rossbach, Röm. Ehe, p. 268; supra p. 7. "Zeitschr. für vergl. Spr. 1907, pp. 283-6; Warde Fowler, Rom. Fest. p. 99. 42 Roscher, Jahrb. für Philol. und Paedagog. III (1875) pp. 367-8. He offers such examples as consuetudo from consuetitudo, aestivus from aestativus, stipendium from stipipendium, etc.

43 Golden Bough, II3, p. 190; Mag. Orig. of Kings, p. 214, note 1. Cf. Roscher, Juno u. Hera, p. 15; Censorinus, De Die Nat. XXII, 12.

the existence of the two forms Iunonius and Iunonalis, thinks the derivation of Iunius from Iuno seems certain. He believes the name of the month cannot be separated from Iuno, because on the Calends of June the principal feast of the goddess was celebrated. He might have added that the places where the calendar name is attested are for the most part important centers of Juno-worship. Of interest, also, is the fact that Falerii, where her worship was especially prominent, is the only place outside Rome where the name Junius is met in dialect inscriptions, and there it had the old value of a praenomen.

If they were deities of the bright heavens, we should expect temples of Jupiter and Juno to crown hilltops; and such we find is usually the case. According to Vitruvius,46 sites of the temples for those gods under whose particular protection the state is to rest and of temples for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, should be on the very highest point commanding a view of the greater part of the city. The prominence of the deity may account to some extent for the position of the shrine, but not entirely, as the temples to Vesta, Hercules, and the Castors show. The cult of a serpent in a cave at Lanuvium has been associated by some scholars with the worship of Juno Sospita, but E. M. Douglas47 in a thorough treatment of the subject has shown that the temple of the goddess probably stood on the Arx.

It is true that for the construction of most of the temples of Latium we have comparatively late dates, but several of these temples doubtless occupied sites of old shrines of the goddess. For instance, a very early cult of Juno was known on Mons Cispius,48 so old that her hedge was said to antedate the building of the city. The cult of the goddess on the citadel seems also to have been very ancient, though the temple was not dedicated

44 Roscher's argument that the last half of the month of June was most favorable for marriages is scarcely valid, for during the first half of the month marriages were not permitted. On the other hand, the latter fact seems evidence against the belief that Juno was originally a goddess of women and marriage. Macrobius, S. I, 12, 30; Ovid, Fasti, VI, 59; Lydus, De Mens. IV, 57; Plut Qu. Rom. 86.

45 Deecke, Die Falisker, p. 236 (he thinks Etruscan influence is clear); Otto, op. cit. p. 169.

47 Journal of Rom. Studies, III (1913) p. 61; infra p. 67.

48 Infra pp. 57-8.

until 344 B.C. When the Gauls sacked Rome, geese sacred to Juno were on the Arx, and her worship there as Moneta49 may no doubt be traced from very remote times. It is the same cult of the goddess which is recorded in later times on the Alban Mount, side by side with the worship of Jupiter. In like manner the ancient cult from Veii50 found a seat on the Aventine, where was also a temple of Jupiter Libertas, and the day celebrating the foundation of both these sacred buildings was the Calends of September. Doubtless at Veii also Juno was a goddess of the heights. An inscription from Rapino of about 250 B.C.51 mentions a festival procession in honor of iovia ioves patres ocres tarincris. Probably this means, "Juno, belonging to Jupiter, of the hill Tarincris."

Many of the cults and epithets of both Jupiter and Juno show them as deities of the sky. In most cases these are not exactly similar, as if patterned one from the other, but are apparently derived from the same source and developed in their slightly different ways.

Among the Oscans52 the cult of Lucetius is most significant, since Jupiter was to them a giver of light, whether of the sun or moon. The Salii,53 representing one of the earliest Roman cults, invoked him by this name and the title seems fairly general in Italy. According to Martianus Capella54 there was also a Juno Lucetia; but even if this testimony is rather late, there is abundant evidence that one of the oldest epithets of Juno was Lucina.55 Leucesius56 was applied to Jupiter; Leucesia57 was used of Juno, though apparently less often.

Other epithets of Jupiter were Pluvialis and Imbricator. When rain was sorely needed his aid was sought under the name Elicius by a peculiar ritual.58 Likewise certain indications in

49 Infra pp. 60-1.

50 Infra pp. 63-4.

51 Supra p. 11.

52 Pauly-Wissowa, X, 1127; Conway, Ital. Dialects, pp. 218 ff.; Peterson,

Cults of Campania, p. 5.

53 Mommsen, Unterital. Dialekte, 274.

54 II, 149; Conway, l.c.

55 Whatmough, op. cit. p. 185, note 8; infra pp. 57-8.

56 Pauly Wissowa, 1.c.

57 Myth. Vat. 3, 4.

58 For Jupiter as a god of rain, see Carter, Relig. of Numa, p. 58; Warde Fowler, Rom. Fest. pp. 229 ff.; Wissowa, Relig. und Kult.2 pp. 113 ff.

the cult of Juno show that she was a goddess associated with rain. Crows and ravens, birds which prognosticate rain59 and which love the heights, were sacred to her. For example, across the Tiber was a place of the corniscae divae,60 sacred to Juno because these birds were thought to be in her protection, and a cippus inscribed devas corniscas61 shows that the cult existed to the end of the Republic. Livy62 mentions omens of ravens in her temple, and on coins of the gens Cornuficia the goddess was represented with a raven perched on her shield. Likewise a dog,64 which was also used in rain-charms, was crucified on the festival of Juno Moneta. Otto takes care to prove that she had much to do with rain signs and incantations in early times. This aspect of the goddess is in accord with what Frazer says of the association of the moon with dew and moisture in the minds of primitive peoples.

Cato67 informs us that before wheat, barley, beans, etc. were harvested, a porca praecidanea must be sacrificed to Ceres, and that before the immolation of the sow, Janus, Jupiter, and Juno must be invoked with incense and wine. Such harvest rites certainly originate in early religion and it is accordingly worth noting that Jupiter and Juno are worshipped side by side in the fields as deities of fertility. Jupiter in fact was sometimes called Frugifer and was important as a deity who fostered the growth of vines, and so forth.69

59 Lucret. V, 1083 ff.; Verg. Geor. I, 388; Hor. C. III, 17, 12; Gruppe, Gr. Myth. p. 820, note 1; Preller, Röm. Myth. I3, p. 284.

60 Festus, p. 56 L.

61 C.I.L. I, 814-VI, 96. Cf. Röm. Mitt. X (1895) pp. 64-5. Corniscas is genitive singular here, Otto, op. cit. p. 192. Vürtheim, Mnemosyne N.S. XXXVII (1909) p. 322, suggests reading, "cum Diva Mulier alites ostendit oscitantes" in Catullus, XXV, 5.

62 XXI, 62, 4.

63 Grueber, Coins of the Rom. Republic in the Br. Mus. II, pp. 577-8.

44 Gruppe, Gr. Myth. p. 818.

65 Op. cit. pp. 183 ff.

66 Golden Bough, VI3, pp. 132 and 138.

67 De Agricultura, 134.

68 Apul. De Mundo, p. 371.

69 Wissowa, op. cit. p. 115; Toutain, Études de Myth. et d'Hist. des Relig.

ant. pp. 218 ff.; Warde Fowler, Rom. Fest. pp. 87-8.