KEY

TO THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS, AS DESIGNATED IN THE SCHOOL AND FAMILY READERS.

The system of pronunciation here adopted is that of Noah Webster, as contained in the later and improved editions of his Dictionary; and the indicative marks used are the same as those found in Webster's late "Pronouncing and Defining Dictionary," edited by Prof. Goodrich.

Ā, long, as in fame, aīm, dāy, breāk, cāke, māke; heard also in sail, veil, gauge, inveigh.
Ă, short, as in făt, ăt, cărry, tăriff; heard also in plăid, băde, răillery, etc.

Ä, Italian, as in fär, fäther, bälm, päth; heard also in heärt, heärth, äunt, häunch.
Â, as in câre, âir, shâre, pâir, beâr, fâir, pârent; heard also in where, heir.

A, as in låst, åsk, gråss, dance, branch, staff, gråft, påss, chance, chant.

A, sound of broad a, as in all, call, talk, haul, swarm, awe; heard also in naught, taught. A, short sound of broad a, as in what, wash. This coincides with the o in not.

E, long, as in mē, mēte, scheme; heard also in bēard, field, lēisure, briēf, sēize, kēy. E, short, as in mět, měrry; heard also in feather, heifer, leopard, any, friend, guess. Ê, like a in câre; as in thêre, thêir, hêir, whêre, êre, ê'er, whenê'er, etc.

É, short e before r, as in term, verge, verdure, prefer, earth.

I, like long e, as in pïque, machine, mïen, marïne. This is the sound of the French i.

I, long, as in pine, fine, isle; heard also in height, aisle, oblige, microscope.

I, short, as in pin, fin, pit; heard also in sieve, since, been (bin), etc.

1, short, verging toward u, as in bird, firm, virgin, dirt.

ō, long, as in nōte, ōh, nō, dōme; heard also in course, yeōman, rōll, pōrt, dōor, etc.

Ŏ, short, as in not, bond; heard also in coral, Corinth. It coincides with the a in what. Ỏ, like short u, as in dove, love, son, done, wòrm; heard also in dỏes (duz), nône (nun). ̧ Ö, like long oo, as in pröve, dö, möve, tömb, löse, whö, tö.

Ọ, like short oo, as in wolf, Wolsey. This sound coincides with that of u in bull.

OO (short oo), as in foot, book, wool, wood.

Ū, long, as in māte, duty, cube, ünite, has the sound of yu, slightly approaching yoo when it begins a syllable; but in other cases it is difficult to distinguish the sound of the y.

u, short, as in but, tub, sun; heard also in dões (duz), blood (blud), etc.

Û, long, nearly approaching oo when preceded by r, as rûle, rûde, rûby.

U, like oo (short oo), as in full, bull, pull, push, put (not put).

E (italic) marks a letter as silent, as fallen, token.

CONSONANTS.

Cc soft (unmarked), like s sharp, as in cede, mercy.

Єe hard, like k, as in call, carry.

CH ch (unmarked), like tsh, as in child, choose.

CH ch soft, like sh, as in machine, chaise.

CH eh hard, like k, as in chorus, epoch.

G g hard (unmarked), as in go, gallant.

& ġ soft, like j, as in gentle, aged.

Ss sharp (unmarked), as in same, gas.

Ss soft, like z, as in has, amuse.

TH th sharp (unmarked), as in thing, path.
TH th flat or vocal, as in thine, their.

NG like ng, as in longer, congress.

PH like ƒ (unmarked), as in phaeton, sylph.
QU like kw (unmarked), as in queen, inquiry.
WH like hw (unmarked), as in when, while.

FOURTH READER.

PART I.

FIRST DIVISION OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY AND HEALTH.*

(This subject is continued in the Fifth Reader.)

THE FRAME-WORK OF THE HUMAN BODY.

1. ALL persons know how important it is that the framework of a house, such as the walls, the posts, the beams, the braces, and the rafters, should be made of strong materials, and be well put together. If there should be any thing wrong

GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY is the science which treats of the properties and functions of all living things, which include animals and plants.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY treats of the functions or offices of all the different parts or organs in the human body, and the laws which govern them; such as the action of the muscles, the circulation of the blood, digestion, breathing, etc. A knowledge of these functions requires some knowledge of the structure or anatomy of the parts, and the whole is the basis of that department of medicine which treats of the preservation of HEALTH.

in the frame-work, or if the materials should be poor, of what use would the building be after it should be completed?

2. The human body has a frame-work which sustains the house we live in. This house of ours, unlike the houses of men's making, is designed to be moved from place to place, and to be put in many different positions. It must be a strong and curiously planned frame-work that can support such a house without being broken or injured by the many movements required of it.

3. And yet if this house of ours be properly taken care of, the frame-work will support it and carry it about a great many years; and, what is still more curious, if any of the parts of the house, such as a door, a hinge, or a post, its inner apartments or its outer covering, get a little worn or injured by use, each has the power, with a little aid from the other parts, of repairing itself.

4. The bones of the body constitute the movable framework of which we have spoken. There are a great many of these bones-not less than two hundred and eight in number, besides the teeth-and they are joined together very curiously, and kept in their places by a great variety of braces, and bands, and cords, and pulleys, that hold the frame-work firmly, while they allow it to move freely in almost every direction.

5. This curious frame-work is sometimes called the skeleton. Nothing ever made by man can compare with it in beauty and excellence of workmanship. At the upper part of it is what is called the skull, which is composed of eight bony plates closely interlocked1 on their edges. It covers the top of the head, like a bowl or basin, giving support to the scalp or skin of the head, and the hair, and protecting from injury the brain, which lies beneath it.

6. The brain is the seat of thought. It is there that we think, and will, and reason; that we reflect upon the past, and make plans for the future. The brain is a very delicate organ; and, as it requires the very greatest care and protection, it is lodged in the hollow of the skull, which is the strongest and safest room in the house we live in. This lodging-place has been very appropriately called "the chamber of the soul."

7. On the front side of this chamber are two openings, which have been called "the windows of the soul." They are placed with great care in little hollows called sockets, so as to be as little exposed as possible to danger from blows that might chance to fall against that side of the chamber; and, by a little roof that projects over them, they are screened2 from the dust, the wind, and the rain. These windows are the most curious and most wonderful pieces of workmanship that can be conceived, but we have not time to describe them here.

8. But besides the bones of the skull, there are no less than fourteen bones of the face, and four small bones of the ear, and all together make up the frame-work of the head, which rests upon still another set of bones, called the spine, backbone, or spinal column. This is a very important part of the frame-work of the house we live in, and we shall hereafter see that it is very apt to get out of repair by bad usage.

9. This spinal column, which is the chief support of the body, is composed of no less than twenty-four bones placed one upon another, and so closely interlocked and bound together that it is almost impossible to separate them. Yet this column is very pliable and elastic, for it can be bent in all directions without injury; and between the bones are little cushions, formed of what is called cartilage, which yield to pressure like India-rubber, and spring back to their natural position when the pressure is removed.

10. Branching forward, and obliquely downward from the sides of this spinal column, are the ribs, twelve on each side, most of them fastened to the breast-bone in front. They give protection to the liver, lungs, heart, and large bloodvessels. Then there are the bones of the hands and the arms, the latter supported at the shoulder by the collar-bone, the bones of the pelvis at the lower part of the body, and the bones of the legs and feet; and thus we have the frame-work of the body completed.

11. The manner in which all the pieces of this frame-work are joined together, and the means by which they are made to move easily in various directions, are exceedingly curious. Thus the shoulder has one kind of joint, and the elbow an

5

other, while the joints of the wrist and fingers are different still, each adapted to the motions which it is required to perform. They are also firmly held together by strong bands or ligaments, and the ends of the bones are very hard and smooth, and kept constantly oiled that they may not rub harshly upon each other. All these things show very clearly the wisdom and skill of Him who planned the frame-work of the house we live in.

"This curious frame betrays the power divine,
With God's own image stamped on every line."

IN-TER-LOCKED', clasping each other.

2 SCREENED', protected or sheltered from injury.

3 CAR-TI-LAGE, gristle.

4 OB-LIQUE-LY, not in a right line; not perpendicularly.

15 LIG'-A-MENT, that which ties one thing to another. The ligaments are softer than the cartilages.

6 BE-TRAYS', shows; exhibits.

sk. The skull, or cra'-ni-um.

sp. The spine, or spinal column, composed of 24 bones. Each piece is called a vert'-e-bra.

cl. The collar-bone, or clav ́-i-cle.

sc. The shoulder-blade, or scap'-u-la. It is a flat, thin, triangular bone, situated on the upper and back part of the chest. It can not be seen from the front.

8. The breast-bone, or ster'-num.

r. Ribs, branching out from the spinal column.

h. Upper bone of the arm, or hu ́-mer-us.

ra. Outer bone of the fore-arm, or ra'-di-us.

u. Inner bone of the fore-arm, or ul'-na.

c. The wrist, composed of eight bones, called the car'pus.

m. The palm of the hand, composed of five bones, called the met-a-car'-pus.

ph.

The finger-bones, or pha-lan'-ges.

pl. Pelvis bones, called the in-nom-i-na'-ta.

sa. The sa'-crum. It connects with the lower vertebra,

and is bound by ligaments to the innominata.

h. The hip-joint.

f. Thigh-bone, or fe'-mur.

p. Knee-pan, or pa-tel-la.

k. Knee-joint.

t. Shin-bone, or tib'-i-a.

f. Small bone of the leg, or fib'-u-la.

ta. Instep, or tar'-sus.

me. Bones of the middle of the foot, or met-a-tarʼ-sus.

ps. Bones of the toes, or pha-lan'-ges.

The SKULL, a very important part of the human body, as it incloses and protects the brain, is composed of eight bones, whose ragged edges, called sut'-ures, interlock with each other. Each of these bones is formed of two plates of bony matter united by a spongy portion of bone. This formation interrupts, in a measure, the vibrations produced by external blows or falls, and prevents fractures from extending as far as they otherwise would in one continued bone.

The bones of the upper and lower limbs are enlarged at each extremity, as seen in the drawing, thus affording additional room, where most needed, for the attachment of the muscular tendons and ligaments which connect one bone with another.