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Roman places of interment has arisen from the resemblance between the small arched holes which contain the sepulchral urns and the recesses formed for the doves in a dovecote.

This application of the word columbarium is proved by ancient inscriptions, but we are not aware that the term is used in this sense by any extant Latin writer.

In the Villa Doria Pamfili at Rome was discovered, in 1822, a very extensive columbarium, or rather an assemblage of columbaria, which are shown on the accompanying plan. It was surrounded by a wall, with a triple entrance, formed by two columns. The columbaria, which are on a very diminutive scale, are placed without any regularity. One building, A, superior in workmanship to the others, appears to have been a small temple in antis, built with red bricks, set with very delicate joints, and rubbed on the surfaces. The chambers, B, B, B, &c., were superior columbaria, with large niches, which contained double olla or vases for the ashes of the dead, with small tablets let into the wall below each niche. The small structures at C, C, which most resemble the dovecotes, are supposed to have been the sepulchres of the slaves. They are built with reticulated work, and are filled with several rows of pigeon-holes, which contain olla: they have no inscriptions. The brickwork of these columbaria is of several dates, if we may judge from the diversity of construction. The chambers в b, в b, have stone doorways, Egyptian in character. The interior of these little structures, and the temple, have been stuccoed and ornamented with reliefs, and painted. In the columbaria of wealthy families a considerable amount of decoration was sometimes expended. In the immediate neighbourhood of the Columbarium, in the Villa Doria Pamfili, are numerous inscriptions, tablets, and monumental urns, which belonged to these sepulchres, but having been removed from the ollæ, they lose part of their interest. There are several columbaria in the neighbourhood of Rome, among which that of the family Pompeia is remarkable for its tablets and urns. There is another and very fine sepulchral chamber, discovered in the year 1746, near the gate of San Sebastian at Rome.

COLUMBIN (C2H12O, ?), the supposed active principle of the Columba root. The root contains, according to Buchner

Bitter substance with resin

Resinous colouring matter

Oxide of columbium consists of

2 equivalents of oxygen
1 equivalent of columbium

Equivalent

16

185

201

compounds are little known and of no importance. Columbium combines also with chlorine and sulphur, &c., but these

COLUMN, from the Latin columna. The column is a shaft of wood, stone, or iron, in the form of a truncated cone, a little swelled from the this swelling is called the entasis. The column is furnished with a straight line at about one-third its height from the lower extremity : base at the foot and a capital at the head of the shaft. Columns are of various proportions and kinds: circular on the plan, and rarely polygonal. The Romans had five models of columns, which were derived their architecture, only three. The Egyptians used columns, called orders; but the Greeks, from whom the Romans appear to have but they were very different in their form and proportions from both the Roman and Greek examples. Very different again from all these were the columns in Assyrian architecture. [NINEVEH, ARCHITECTURE OF.]

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Water, salts, and loss

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Columbin is obtained from the alcoholic extract of the root, and crystallises therefrom during spontaneous evaporation. It is purified by filtering its alcoholic solution through animal charcoal, and it then possesses the following properties: It crystallises in bitter, inodorous, colourless rhombic prisms, possessing neither acid nor alkaline reaction. Boiling alcohol of 835 dissolves from to of its weight. It is also soluble in caustic alkalies. Taken internally it is poisonous.

COLUMBIUM (Ta) Tantalum. A metal found in 1802, in two Swedish minerals, tantalite and yttro-tantalite. The first, somtimes called also Columbite, occurs amorphous and nodular, and also crystallised in the form of a right rhombic prism. The massive variety is either granular or compact: the crystals are grayish-black: fracture uneven; hardness, 6: sp. gr., 6-038; lustre, imperfect metallic; it is opaque. It contains about 80 per cent. of oxide of columbium, 12 of oxide of iron, and 8 of oxide of manganese. The yttro-tantalite contains oxide of columbium, yttria, and some other substances.

Columbium is obtained with great difficulty. Berzelius procured it by heating potassium with the potasso-fluoride of columbium. It is a black powder, which by the burnisher acquires the colour and lustre of iron. The specific gravity is about 6. It is nearly insoluble in acids. When heated in the air it is oxidised, and converted into columbic acid.

Oxygen and Columbium combine in two proportions, forming columbic acid and oxide of columbium.

Columbic acid may be obtained by burning the metal in the air; it is colourless, insipid, and does not act upon vegetable blue colours. When heated with charcoal it is reduced to the state of oxide. If heated with iron it loses oxygen, and an alloy of iron and columbium is formed. Columbic acid combined with water forms a very white hydrate, which reddens vegetable blues. It combines with salifiable Lases to form salts which are called columbates, but no one of them is of any importance, or applied to any purpose whatever. Columbic acid is composed of

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two orders very similar in appearance and character to each other. [ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.]

The Greek Corinthian, Doric, and Ionic differ from the Roman.

The proportions of the orders vary slightly in almost every example of antiquity; but the distinguishing features are the capitals. The bases also vary in proportion, and sometimes in the profiles of their mould.

[Half the Corinthian capital of the
Temple of Vesta, at Tivoli.]

[Half the Corinthian capital from the
monument of Lysicrates, at Athens.]

ings; but this is not so apparent to an ordinary observer as the difference | capital, as we meet with the latter in the Temple of Jackly near in the capitals of the orders.

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The Corinthian capital consists of the leaves of the acanthus [ACANTHUS] with two spiral horns at each of the four angles of the abacus. In the centre between these horns are two smaller spirals attached to the bell of the capital; under these are two rows of acanthus leaves regularly disposed, eight being placed in each row, and eight large double leaves supporting the angular horns, called also volutes. These are the leading features of the Corinthian capital, although some are more ornamental than others, and have enriched details about the abacus and the bell, which others have not. The most striking difference between the character of the Greek and Roman foliage of the Corinthian column is this: the leaves of the Greek have angular points, and are almost straight on the sides; the Roman are rounded on the sides; the section of the hollow of the Greek is angular, while the Roman is either a segment of a circle, or formed of two segments of a circle meeting in the centre of the hollow of the points of the acanthus leaf. The Greek leaves may be said to have more of the natural character of the acanthus, or the thistle, while the Roman is more artificial, and consequently less like the model from which the Greeks drew their capital. There are examples of the Greek Corinthian capitals, although much mutilated, in the Elgin collection in the British Museum; and casts of the Roman examples from the temple of Jupiter Stator, Mars Ultor, and the Pantheon, also in the British Museum. The bell of the Corinthian capital may be clearly understood from the annexed drawing of the mutilated single Corinthian

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capital found in the Temple of Apollo at Basse, near Phigaleia; and the accompanying drawings of Egyptian capitals, from the French work on Egypt, will show better than any elaborate description the strong

[Egyptian Capitals.]

resemblance of the Egyptian capital to the bell of the Corinthian Mylasa, and the Choragic monument of Lysicrates at Athens. The

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Entasis of a Greek Doric Column, from the 4th vol. of Stuart's 'Athens.'

TUSCAN.

ROMAN DORIC.

ROMAN JONIC.

CORINTHIAN.

[Drawn to the same scale of two Modules, by dividing the diameter into two parts, and each part into thirty parts or minutes.]

order of the Temple of Vesta at Rome, which very much resembles the order of the Temple at Jackly, was most probably copied from it. Among other peculiarities, it has the same defect of the leaves projecting beyond the line of the shaft, and is the only building of the Corinthian order in Rome which has a Greek character. Some Greek Corinthian capitals have only one row of acanthus leaves, and are without the horns under the abacus, the bell being decorated with flat leaves called water-leaves, as in the Tower of the Winds at Athens.

The Ionic column is characterised by the two large spirals or volutes on two of its faces, connected under the abacus. The other sides connect these faces at right angles by a kind of baluster placed horizontally. Beneath this baluster and the astragal surmounting the top of the

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[Half of the capital of the Erectheum.]

[Half the Ionic capital of the order employed in the cella of the Temple of Apollo at Bassæ.] shaft of the column is the neck of the capital, which in some Greek examples is richly decorated; the baluster is also occasionally enriched. In some Ionic capitals all the faces of the volutes are conjoined at the extremities, the faces being curved inwards as in the Temple of Apollo at Bass. Ionic columns placed at the angles of porticos have sometimes the volute ingeniously formed at the angle, so as to present a voluted face either ranging with the volutes of the portico, or with the volutes of the column at the side of the portico. The angle column of St. Pancras Church, London, has the angular faces curved. The angular volutes in some Roman examples are formed of two half volutes placed at right angles to each other. The bases of the Ionic vary perhaps more than any other order. In Roman examples the Attic base is employed.

The Composite column, as its name implies, is a compound. It is formed of the Corinthian and Ionic, but partakes more of the Corinthian character and proportions.

The Roman Doric and Tuscan columns are shafts with moulded capitals and bases, the Doric only having a slight decoration of rosettes and buds in the neck of the capital, and some trifling additional mouldings. The Grecian Doric differs from the Roman both in proportion and in the mouldings of the capital, in the flutings being without fillets, and in its being almost always without a base.

An order includes the column with the whole of the entablature, or the superstructure raised on it, which is divided into architrave, frieze, and cornice.

All the great architects of the cinque cento, and after them those of the later Italian and French schools, have differed in the proportions and details of the orders, but for the most part in a trifling degree. The proportions of the five Roman orders which we have adopted here as our rule are those laid down in Sir William Chambers's 'Architecture,' and which are generally employed by the English architects of the present day. The proportions of the orders used by the Greeks are from the authority of Stuart. The measure by which the proportions of the orders are determined, is the diameter of the base of the shaft of the column, which is divided into two parts called modules, and each module is divided into 30 parts called minutes. This scale is in general use in all countries which derive their architecture from the Greeks and Romans.

Thus the height of the shaft of the Tuscan order, from the upper line of the fillet of the base to the upper line of the astragal of the neck of the column, is 12 modules or semidiameters high; the base, including the plinth, is 30 minutes; the capital, 30 minutes; the architrave, 31 minutes; the frieze, 314 minutes; the cornice, including the bed-mould or ogee, 42 minutes; and the projection of the cornice, 42 minutes. The shaft of the Doric order is 13 modules 28 minutes; the base, 30 minutes; the capital, 32 minutes; the architrave, 30 minutes; the frieze, 45 minutes; and the cornice, 45 minutes. The projection of the cornice is 57 minutes. The shaft of the Ionic order contains 16 modules 9 minutes; the base, 30 minutes; the capital, from the upper line of the astragal, 21 minutes; the architrave, 40 minutes; the frieze, 40 minutes; and the cornice, 54 minutes. The projection of the cornice is 54 minutes. The Corinthian order has the shaft 16 modules 20 minutes; the base, 30 minutes; the capital, 70 minutes;

ARTS AND SOL. DIV. VOL. III.

the architrave, 45 minutes; the frieze, 45 minutes; the cornice, 60 minutes; and the projection, 58 minutes. The Composite order is similar in its general proportions to the Corinthian; and the columns of the Roman orders diminish in diameter about one-sixth; that is, are 50 minutes at the upper diameter of the shaft. But by a reference to the proportions of some of the columns of ancient edifices at the end of this article, some variations from this proportion will appear.

The Greek Doric varies very much in its proportions. The Doric of the Parthenon has the shaft and capital 10 modules 8 minutes high, and the entablature 3 modules 15 minutes. For a scale of the pro portions of the leading features of some of the best known examples of antiquity, see the end of this article.

The Tuscan order, which is simple in its design, has a base formed of a plinth or squared piece of stone as a foundation, and a torus above it, surmounted with a fillet. The shaft is terminated with a fillet and an astragal, on which the capital is set, consisting of a necking (a prolongation of the shaft) and an ovolo moulding supporting the squared abacus, which is surmounted with a fillet. The architrave is a plain face with a broad fillet. The frieze also is a plain face. The cornice consists of an ogee, a fillet, an ovolo forming the bed-mould of the cornice, which consists also of the corona and fillet, surmounted with a cymatium.

The Roman Doric, resembling in some particulars the Tuscan, is however very much richer. The Doric base consists of a plinth, a torus, a hollow moulding with a fillet above and below it; on the upper fillet is another torus and fillet, from which rises the shaft, curved where it springs from the fillet: the lower diameter of the shaft of a column is always measured from the point where this curve ends, and is joined to the straight line of the shaft. This is the Attic base, which is most commonly used in all the orders except the Tuscan. The shaft of the Doric is terminated like the Tuscan, and from the summit springs the capital with a neck enriched with rosettes and buds. Above the necking are three flat annular rings or fillets, then an ovolo moulding surmounted with the abacus, which is finished with a small ogee moulding and fillet. The architrave is a plain face, with a flat band (tania) and a fillet under the triglyph, with six gutta or drops under the fillet. The frieze is divided into compartments with a triglyph over each column and one or more between, according to the width of the intercolumniation. The triglyphs which project slightly from the face of the frieze are channelled with angular channels and two half channels at the sides of the triglyph. The metope, or space between two triglyphs, is square or nearly so; this, however, depends on the intercolumns. The triglyphs are bound together by a facia, surmounted by a small fillet under the bed-mould of the cornice, which is an ovolo moulding or an ogee. Over this is the mutule band with the mutules, square in form, projecting over the triglyphs; an ogee surmounts the mutules and the mutule band. The mutules support the cornice, consisting of the corona, an ogee and fillet, and a cavetto or hollow moulding. The soffit or under-side of the cornice is sometimes enriched with pannels, and gutta are placed under the mutules. The Doric of the theatre of Marcellus at Rome has dentils with an ogee bed-mould in the cornice in lieu of the mutules; and the basilica by Palladio at Vicenza is without either mutules or dentils, having instead of them a bold ogee and ovolo moulding, and the architrave divided into two facia.

The Greek Doric differs considerably from the Roman, being almost always executed without a base. The flutings of the shaft are twenty in number without fillets; some examples are fluted only at the upper and lower extremities. The capital consists of a solid-looking abacus

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[Half the capital of the Parthenon at Athens.]

without any moulding above it, but supported by a very elegantlycurved echinus-moulding, which swells gradually out of the line of the shaft, being bound round by three annulets or rings near the top of the shaft, and on the under extremity of the echinus. A part of the shaft is also cut off by a sinking, or channel, cut into the shaft, forming the necking of the capital. The features of the entablature are very simple. [GREEK ARCHITECTURE.] The triglyphs are not very dissimilar in the Roman and Greek Doric, except in the setting them off on the frieze. In the Roman they are invariably set over the centre line of each column, the angle of a building being terminated by a portion of a metope. In the Greek the triglyph is invariably com

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menced at the angle of the building, and not over the centre line of same, and they differ but slightly in their mouldings and enrichments. the column generally. The base of both Corinthian and Composite is the Attic. The flutings

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The Roman Ionic has an Attic base. The capital is formed with two volutes on two faces, and the volutes are connected by horizontal lines, though sometimes, like the Greek, the curved line is employed. The abacus is formed of a fillet and an ogee. Under the horizontal lines connecting the volutes is an echinus and astragal or bead-moulding enriched. The architrave is divided into two faciæ: the upper face is surmounted with a fillet and ogee enriched, and the lower with a small echinus, also enriched, having a narrow fillet underneath it. The frieze is usually plain, though the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome has a meagre decoration. The cornice is supported by an ogee moulding and dentils surmounted with a fillet, a bead moulding, and a large enriched echinus moulding. The cornice itself consists of a corona with a small ogee and fillet, on which is placed a cymatium. The volutes of the capital are connected at the sides by a pulvinus, or cushion, commonly called the baluster of the Ionic order. The Greek Ionic varies in proportion, and is superior in beauty to the Roman example. The method of drawing the Roman volute called Goldman's volute, is described in Sir William Chambers's Architecture.

The following is a very accurate method of drawing the Greek volute similar to the form of the volute of the Erectheum or Minerva Polias at Athens. Divide any perpendicular height, A B, into 12 equal parts. Through the 7th division g from the top, draw the line c D at right angles to A B. Then upon the line c D, from the centre g, set off towards c six of the seven divisions between A and g. Draw the lines GH and E F, at angles of 45 degrees to the lines A B and C D respectively. Bisect the line joining a and c by b a, and produce it till it cuts E F in d. Then from d, as a centre, with the radius d A or d c, describe the quadrant A c of the volute. Then join c d, cutting the line G H in e; from the point e describe with the radius e c or e в the quadrant c B, passing through B, the extremity of the line A B; and proceed in this manner with all the quadrants till you touch the centre. The centres of the segments A C, C B, B D, &c., are always found on the diagonal lines E F and G H.

The best examples of the Roman Ionic order are fluted, with twentyfour flutings, or semicircular channels, divided by a narrow fillet, which is part of the surface of the shaft of the column. Some Greek examples, as at Bass, have only 20 flutings, and are without fillets.

The general proportions of the Corinthian and Composite are the

B

[Method of drawing the spiral forming the volute of the Greek Ionic of the Erectheum and Minerva Polias Temples, at Athens.]

of the shaft are, as in the Ionic, twenty-four, and divided by fillets. The capital is composed of two rows of acanthus leaves, eight in each row, and the upper row is placed between and over the divisions of the lower row. Four spiral volutes in each face rise out of two bunches of the acanthus leaf, and two of them are connected at the angles, and support the abacus formed of a cavetto and fillet, and an echinus, which are, except the fillet, sometimes enriched. The face of the abacus is formed of the segment of a circle, whose extremities are supported by the spiral horns or volutes. The connected ends of the abacus form a narrow face, round which the mouldings are continued, although in some rare instances these ends are pointed by the intersection of the two curved faces of the abacus. The leaves and volutes are carved round what is a continuation of the shaft, formed into the shape of a bell reversed. The lower row of leaves generally follows the line of the shaft, which is considered the best system of setting them off round the bell, although the Temple of Vesta at Rome has the leaves projecting beyond the shaft, and Inigo Jones has adopted this system in the Banqueting-house at Whitehall. The Corinthian architrave is divided into three faces, the Composite into two. The upper face is surmounted with an astragal and ogee enriched with a fillet; the middle face has above it a small enriched ogee, and the lower face an

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