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tion is that the venous blood passes to the left side of the heart without undergoing its proper amount of oxygenation in the lungs. The effect of this abnormal mixture of the two bloods is not to destroy life immediately, but to produce a series of symptoms, the most prominent of which is a blueness of the skin, constituting the disease called cyanosis. This is not an unfrequent occurrence, and according to the extent of the communication between the two sides of the heart will be the intensity of the disease. Sometimes the feebleness and derangement of the system causes death within a few hours after birth; in other cases persons have been known to attain mature age labouring under this affection.

The effect of this malformation, according to its degree, is to diminish the nutrition of the body, and to produce general weakness and exhaustion. The functions of the heart and lungs are interfered with, and there is frequently a rapid intermitting pulse, with attacks of difficulty of breathing. The blueness of the skin is increased during these attacks. There is generally coldness of the skin from the imperfect nature of the respiratory changes which go on in the body. There is also a tendency to dropsical effusion in various parts of the body. In this disease little can be done to effect a cure. The great object is to alleviate any distressing symptoms which may arise.

CYANOXALIC ACID. [URIC ACID.]

CYANURENIC ACID, an acid found in the urine of the dog. It much resembles uric acid, but differs in being soluble in hydrochloric acid. It is obtained from the tenacious deposit that forms when the urine of the dog is set aside for some time. That substance is dissolved in lime-water, and sufficient hydrochloric acid added to neutralise the lime; cyanurenic acid then separates in the form of small colourless needles. It is insoluble in alcohol, is sublimed by heat, and is then soluble in alcohol. It forms salts with bases, some of which are crystalline.

CYANURIC ACID (3(HO, Cy0) + 4Aq., or 3HO, CN,O, + 4Aq.). This acid was discovered by Scheele in the distillation of uric acid; more lately Serullus obtained it by another process, and described it under the name of cyanic acid; and lastly, Wöhler and Liebig examined its constitution and properties.

This acid is formed under various circumstances, as by the decomposition of solid chloride of cyanogen by water, the decomposition of soluble cyanates by dilute acid, and the distillation of uric acid, &c. In order to prepare it, the best process seems to be to dissolve dry melam [MELAM] with a gentle heat in concentrated sulphuric acid; the solution is to be poured into 20 or 30 parts of water, and the mixture is to be kept for several days, at a temperature near ebullition, or until small portions yield no white precipitate with ammonia. The solution is then to be evaporated to its crystallising point, and the crystals obtained are to be purified by recrystallisation.

Cyanuric acid forms rather small colourless prismatic crystals, which are efflorescent, losing at ordinary temperatures the whole of their water of crystallisation. It is very slightly soluble in cold water, and requires 24 parts of boiling water to dissolve it; it is inodorous, has but little taste, and reddens litmus but feebly. It is a remarkably permanent substance, being soluble without decomposition in concentrated sulphuric or nitric acid, though when heated in them it is eventually decomposed.

According to Liebig, the crystallised acid consists of 3 equivalents of cyanogen 78, 3 equivalents of oxygen 24, 7 equivalents of water 63, equivalent = 165: 3 equivalents of the water constitute the acid a hydrate, and 4 equivalents are water of crystallisation. It combines with 3 equivalents of base to form cyanurates, and is therefore what is termed a tribasic acid. By exposure to a very high temperature 1 equivalent of hydrated cyanuric acid is decomposed into 3 equivalents of hydrated cyanic acid. Urea is by heat converted into cyanuric acid and ammonia.

CYBELE. [RHEA.]

CYCLAMIN. [ARTHANITIN.]

CYCLE, which means nothing but circle (kúλos), has an arbitrary use in chronology. Certain of the cycles, or recurring methods of denoting time, which are in common use, are called cycles, to the exclusion of the rest. The principal of these, if not the only ones, are the Metonic cycle [METON, BIOG. DIV.; CALIPPUS, BIOG. DIV.], the SOLAR cycle, and the cycle of INDICTION. But the natural cycles, such as the revolutions of the sun and moon, are not called cycles; nor even some of the artificial ones, such as the Julian period. It would be useless to retain this artificial and confused distinction. Under the distinctive words METON, BIOG. DIV., INDICTION, &c., the reader will find the origin of each method of reckoning; while in the article PERIOD OF REVOLUTION, he will see a table of the lengths and commencements of all the cycles, natural and artificial, whether called cycle, period, year, day, or month.

CYCLOGRAPH, or ARCOGRAPH, is an instrument for drawing arcs of circles without centres, and is used in architectural and engineering drawing, when the centres are too distant to be conveniently accessible. One such contrivance, which however does not produce perfectly circular arcs, is noticed under COMPASSES. Bricklayers and masons, when they wish to strike an arc for the tops of doors and windows, have recourse to a very simple mode of accomplishing the object, by driving a nail into the wall at each extremity of the intended arc, and then nailing two straight laths or rods together at such an angle that

while their external sides or edges are in contact with the nails driven in the wall, their apex or meeting point shall touch the crown of the required arch. A tracing point in the apex will then describe the required arc. The same plan may be adopted in drawing on paper, substituting pins for the nails, and a piece of stout cardboard, cut to the required angle, for the laths. Mr. Rotch's Arcograph, described in the Transactions' of the Society of Arts, vol. xxxix. pp. 49–51, is an instrument consisting of two rules connected together by a joint which forms a socket for a pencil, and furnished with two quadrant-shaped pieces of brass, sliding upon one another, by which the rules may be set to any required angle, and secured by clasps. This instrument is used in the same way as the laths above described, and it affords the means of measuring, by the graduation of one of the quadrants, the degrees contained in the arcs described by it. Mr. Alderson's Curvilinead, described in the forty-fourth volume of the same work, pp. 151-156, is another instrument on the same principle, but of more perfect construction, in which the pencil may be projected beyond the apex of the angle for the purpose of drawing a second arc parallel with the first. This second arc is not mathematically correct, but, when on a small scale, it is sufficiently so for all ordinary purposes.

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The Centrolinead of Mr. Peter Nicholson, described in the thirtysecond and thirty-third volumes of the Transactions' of the above Society, pp. 67-70 and 69-81, is an instrument acting on the same principle, although its chief use is, not as a cyclograph, but as an instrument for drawing lines converging to a distant and inaccessible point. It may be compared to a T-rule in which the transom consists of two pieces adjustable to any required angle with each other, and the centre of which, answering to the apex of the cyclographs above described, is precisely on a line with the fiducial or drawing edge of the stem or long limb of the rule. The instrument being once adjusted to the required angles, and having its angular transom laid against two fixed pins, just like the angle of a cyclograph, any number of converging lines may be drawn by it as readily as parallel lines drawn by a common T-rule, with its transom sliding against the edge of the drawing-board.

Another instrument rewarded by the Society of Arts, and described in the thirty-fifth volume of their 'Transactions,' pp. 109-112, under the name of a Curvograph, was contrived by Mr. Warcup for copying or transferring curved lines, or describing them originally, of any required curvature, by means similar to those adopted in the instru ment represented under BEVEL. The adjustable ruler itself consists of a thin pliable slip of whalebone, and the adjusting ribs, answering to the screws ff, in the figure above referred to, instead of being screwed, are merely secured in any required position by the pressure of wedges acting upon small pieces of cork inserted in the ruler or stock through which they pass.

CYCLOID (KUKλocions, like a circle), a name very incorrectly given to the curve which is traced out by any point of a circle rolling on a straight line. Thus while the wheel of a carriage revolves, each nail on the circumference describes a succession of cycloids; more correctly, a succession of branches of one cycloid. We might also here describe the various curves made by the points of circles which roll inside or outside of other circles, &c. &c. But as the cycloid stands apart from all the rest, both in simplicity and historical notoriety, we shall here confine ourselves to this one curve alone, and refer the rest to the head TROCHOIDAL CURVES.

If we suppose a circle to roll on a straight line, it is obvious that the centre will advance in every moment through a length equal to the portion of the circumference which is brought in contact with the line on which the circle rolls. That is,

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supposing c, the point now highest on the circle, to be the one whose path is to be traced, then, by the time the mere rotation would have brought this point to P, the whole system will have been carried forward through a length PQ equal to the arc CP. Hence follows a very simple mode of conceiving the form of a cycloid: at every point P imagine a line P Q parallel to AB and equal to the arc CP; the extremities of all these lines will be in the cycloid. The arc a C, through which the point on the circle rises from the line AB to its highest position, is similar and equal to the arc CB through which it descends. In the diagram we see small parts of the preceding and succeeding cycloids.

The principal properties of the cycloid are as follows:1. PQ is equal in length to the arc C P.

2. The tangent at q is parallel to the chord C P.

3. The arc cQ is twice the chord CP, and the whole arc A CB is four times CE, the diameter of the generating circle.

4. Complete the rectangle cqn; the area CQR is equal to the

circular area CPM, and the whole area A CB is three times that of the generating circle.

5. The curvature at Q is the same as that in a circle whose radius is twice EP, and the involute and evolute (see these terms) of a cycloid are both cycloids of the same magnitude.

6. If the figure be reversed, so that c is the lowest point of the cycloid, and A and B the highest points; then, no friction being supposed, and the cycloid being of resisting matter, a small weight placed at q will take the same time to slide to c, whatever the point Q may be. Hence all the arcs of the cycloid are said to be synchronous.

6. On the same supposition as in the preceding, a weight will slide from в to Q in a shorter time than in any other curve which can be drawn between B and Q. Hence the cycloid is called the brachystochron. Let be the angle cop (in theoretical units) [ANGLE], CM=∞, MQ=Y, OP=a, then we have the following equations :

x=a (1-cos 0)

y=a (0 + sin 0)

from which the properties of the curve may be deduced.

If, instead of measuring PQ from P, we had carried it forward from M, then Q would have described a curve known by the name of the companion to the cycloid, but which is in truth a curve of sines. [SINES, CURVE OF.]

The history of the cycloid is remarkable from the contests which it produced, and the manner in which the names of Galileo, Descartes, Mersenne, Pascal, Roberval, Wallis, and others, appear in connection with it. But there would be little use in giving an abstract of history on points of no material use, and the interest of which depends on the light in which a detailed account, and nothing less, would place the state of science of the 17th century. Galileo was certainly the first who attempted the investigation of the properties of the cycloid, as appears from a letter to Torricelli, written in 1639. (See Montucla, Hist. des Math.' vol. ii. p. 52, &c.)

CYCLOPÆDIA. [DICTIONARY.] CYDER. [CIDER.]

CYGNUS (the swan), one of the old constellations of Aratus, who refers it to the fable of Leda, as does Hyginus; but the latter gives another fable of the same kind. The bright star (Deneb), a Cygni, may be seen on the meridian at eight o'clock in the beginning of October; the bright stars in Aquila, Lyra, and Cygnus form a remarkable triangle.

The principal stars are as follows:

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CYLINDER, in mathematics (kúλivõρos), a name given generally to the surface formed by a straight line which moves parallel to itself, whatever may be the guiding curve; but frequently confined to the common definition, which supposes the straight line to be of finite length, and to move round the circumference of a circle, keeping always at right angles to its plane. We shall extend this a little, and treat of the cylinder which has an oval for its base, and the moving line at right angles to the plane of the base, whence the cylinder is called a right cylinder.

The cylinder may be considered us a cone, of which the apex is at an infinite distance; and many of the general notions in the article CONE may be applied to it.

The content of a cylinder (in cubic units) is the number of square units in the base multiplied by the number of linear units in the altitude. Thus the cylinder being circular, the base having a radius of 10 feet, and the altitude being 7 feet, the number of square feet in the base is 100 x 355 113, or 314-159, which, multiplied by 7, gives 2199 113, the number of cubic feet in the cylinder. To find the number of square units in the surface, multiply the number of linear units in the circumference of the base by that in the altitude. Thus in the preceding case the number of feet in the circumference of the base is 20 x 355-113, or 62-8318, which, multiplied by 7, gives 439-8226, the number of square feet in the cylindrical part of the surface, exclusive of its two terminating planes. [PRISM, SUBCONTRARY.]

CYLINDRICAL LENS. [LENS.]

tered by Mr. Fenn a few years ago, for making copies of the outlines of capitals, cornices, mouldings, and other architectural figures. Many years earlier, a curious plan was adopted for taking a mould of the human face, by enclosing a large number of thin steel wires in a frame; pressing it gently and gradually, so that one end of every wire should touch the face, and thus form a die or intaglio of wires, the reverse of the face. Mr. Fenn seems to have conceived his cymameter as an extension of this plan. It consists, essentially, of a large number of very thin laths or plates, all of equal length, and placed one on another. When one end of these laths is pressed against a moulding or other device, the other end assumes a corresponding position; the laths which press against a convex surface jut out more at the other end than those which press against a concave surface; insomuch that the outer extremities of all the laths form collectively a type of the moulding or device.

CYMBALS (Kuu Baλov), metallic musical instruments of percussion, which are traceable to the remotest ages of antiquity, and, with no great change in form, are still used by the moderns. They are always medals, anciently took, as their name imports, a more cup-like shape in pairs, are made of brass, and, according to Greek sculptures and than at present. Servius says that the cymbals were consecrated to Cybele-that is, were employed by her priests--because they represented the two celestial hemispheres which surround the earth. They are now nearly flat, about twelve inches in diameter, the central part sunk in, and at the back of the sunken portion is a strap, by which each instrument is held. The sound is produced by striking them more or less violently together, and in the open air they produce a very martial effect, but are entirely out of place in the theatre and but in modern theatrical music they take a prominent part when the concert-room. Into the latter, indeed, they have not yet often intruded, composer has to make up by noise what he wants in genius and taste. CYMENE. [CAMPHOGEN.]

CYMIDINE (C2H,,N). An artificial organic base, analogous to aniline. It may be formed by the action of sulphide of ammonium upon nitrocymole (CH, NO.).

belliferous plant (the generic name of which is most commonly spelt CYMI'NUM CYMI'NUM, Medical Properties of. This annual umCuminum, which mode is correct if it be a mere Latinised form of the Arabian word Qamoùn, but incorrect if it be a reduplication of the Greek Kúvov) is native in Egypt, Ethiopia, &c., and was cultivated by the ancients in Palestine, as it is by the moderns in Malta, Sicily, and India. The fruit (improperly termed seed) is the officinal part. Externally it is of a grayish yellow colour, and is larger than those of caraway or anise. The seed within more readily separates from the pericarp than happens with most other umbelliferous fruits. It is distinguished from others by having the ridges (juga) prolonged into a point at the summit of the fruit. The primary ridges are five, filiform, and furnished with very fine prickles; the secondary are four, prominent and prickly. Beneath each of these is one vitta. The odour is strong, aromatic, and rather unpleasant; the taste is warm, bitter, and disagreeable. The odour and taste are mainly due to a volatile oil which is more abundant in this fruit than in most umbelliferous plants: one pound yields half an ounce of this oil, according to some; while ten pounds yield only three ounces and a half, according to others. Notwithstanding this large quantity of oil, the fruits are frequently eaten by insects. The oil is pale yellow, but speedily becomes brownish, very limpid, of a specific gravity of 0.975. This consists of two distinct oils, one a carbo-hydrogen, belonging to the terebinthinate series; the other an oxygenated oil, or hydruret of cumyl. (Pereira.) The odour is, like that of the fruit, disagreeable, and the taste is acrid. When old it becomes acid, and according to Chevallier contains succinic acid.

The disagreeable odour of cumin seems to have gradually discarded it, from medicine for man, and restricted its use to veterinary medicine. Its employment in this way may be a relic of its ancient repute, for the Israelites esteemed it highly as a remedy for cattle after the bites of insects. (Lady Callcott's Scripture Herbal,' p. 124.)

Still it is a potent carminative, and was esteemed by Cullen the best of this class of remedies, a preference to which the very large portion of essential oil it contains justly entitles it. It was reported also discutient and diuretic. In the former quality it was employed as a plaster. It was reckoned one of the semina 4 calida majora. In the north of Europe it is still much used as an addition to bread and ragouts. It enters into the composition of many curry-powders, but should be introduced into these in very small quantity. In Germany a sort of liqueur or aromatic water is distilled from the fruits, useful as a carminative, called kummel-wasser. The seeds of the nigella sativa are, in the same country, called black cummin.

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CYMAMETER. This name has been given to a contrivance, regis- a copulated acid.

345° Fahr.

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Sulphocymolic acid (CH,S,O). When heated with moderately strong nitric acid it is changed into toluic acid (C,H,O,) and nitroluic acid (CH,(NO)0). By the action of a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids, it is converted into binitrocymole (CH1(NO),) a substance which crystallises in iridescent rhombic plates. CYNAPINE, an alkaloid said to be found in the false parsley (Ethusa cynapium). Its composition is unknown. CYNENE (C2,H1). A hydrocarbon oil, obtained by distilling the essence of semen-contra (Artemisia castra) from anhydrous phosphoric acid. It is a very fluid colourless oil, soluble in ether, but insoluble in water. Its specific gravity is 825, and it boils about CYNICS, the name of a sect of Greek philosophers who were produced by the school of Socrates, and were so called according to one interpretation of the word (KUVIкoí, dog-like) from their snarling disposition, though it is possible that the name may have been derived from the gymnasium called Cynosarges, in which Antisthenes, the founder of this school, used to lecture. [ANTISTHENES, in BIOG. DIV.] Their doctrines were the exact opposite of those of the Cyrenaics, who were also an offshoot of the Socratic philosophy. [CYRENAICS.] They held that virtue was not only the highest but the only object at which men ought to aim, and that most of the sciences and arts, as they do not tend to make men virtuous, but sometimes on the contrary interfere with the attainment of it, are unprofitable and pernicious. The true philosopher, according to their notions, was he who could discard all the comforts and charities of life and triumph over his bodily wants, so as to be enabled to live only for virtue without any interruptions either to the contemplation or the practice of it. The result of these principles was great strictness of morals, and voluntary penances worthy of the fanaticism of an eastern dervise; and as long as these characteristics were coupled with ability in the professors and consistent philosophy in what they taught, the sect maintained its place by the side of other philosophical systems, and some members of it, for instance Antisthenes and Diogenes, deserved and obtained great celebrity. [DIOGENES, in BIOG. DIV.] At length, however, the morality of the Cynics degenerated into the most shameless profligacy (see the case of 'Crates and Hipparchia' in Diogen. Laërt. vi. § 97), and they became so disgusting from their impudence, dirty habits, and begging, that they ceased to be regarded with any respect, and the sect dwindled away into obscurity. Of their speculative opinions we know very little: indeed it does not appear that they had any theories, except on the science of logic. The great merit of the Cynic philosophy was that it paved the way for the establishment of Stoicism, which succeeded and superseded it, just as the philosophy of Epicurus supplanted that of Aristippus. The connection of this school with the philosophy of Socrates appears to have consisted in their developing the idea of science as applied to morality (to which object the labours of Socrates were mainly directed), but they did so to the exclusion of all those other principles which Socrates admitted as useful adjuncts, and his sneers at the austerity and affected negligence of Antisthenes may be taken as a proof of the low opinion which he entertained of this narrow application of his doctrines. (Diogen. Laërt., vi., § 8; ii., § 36.) The classical reader will find in Lucian's Cynicus' an attempt to justify some of the peculiar views of this school, especially in regard to their neglect of the conveniences of life, though it is not to be supposed that Lucian was inclined to the Cynical philosophy, for he elsewhere ridicules it. (See the 'Lapitha' and the Vitarum Auctio.' See also Ritter's 'Geschichte der Philosophie,' Hegel's 'Geschichte der Philosophie,' and G. H. Lewes's Biographical History of Philosophy.') CYNODIN. A non-azotised crystallisable body of unknown composition, found in dog-grass (Cynodon dactylon).

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CYNOSURA (kuvòs oupá, the tail of the dog), a name given to the lesser Bear. According to Aratus and Hyginus, Cynosura was one of the nymphs of Mount Ida, who nursed Jupiter. But it is at least as probable that before the Greeks adapted their mythology to the constellations, they had from some oriental source the habit of figuring Ursa Minor as a dog, and that the tail of the dog was the pole star. [URSA MINOR.] Many persons may probably know this word only from the two lines of Milton's 'Allegro'

Where perhaps some beauty lies,

The Cynosure of neighbouring eyes.

These lines may have puzzled some readers, though the reference to the pole star and the property of the magnet gives the image a degree of fitness for poetry which the etymology of the word alone would hardly suggest.

CYRAMETURIC ACID. [CYANOGEN.] CYRENA'ICS, a school of philosophers among the Greeks, who derived their name from the birth-place of their founder Aristippus. [ARISTIPPUS, in BIOG. Div.] Like the Cynics, their doctrines were a partial development of those of Socrates; but the view they took of their predecessor's philosophy was quite different from the Cynical. [CYNICS.] The only particular in which the two sects agreed with the original

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system and with one another was that they all three made virtue consist in knowledge; in other words they were all three attempts to awaken and develop the idea of science; but while the Cynics considered all sublunary enjoyment and most branches of knowledge as impediments to the knowledge, and consequently, according to Socrates, to the practice, of virtue, the Cyrenaics, on the other hand, were not contented with the mere knowledge of the good as a general term, but sought for it in the separate particulars, and deemed him to have performed his proper functions most consistently with his nature who had succeeded in amassing the greatest number of particular good things. In regard to the idea of science, they did not look upon it as a speculative conception, but as a merely empirical result, as the aggregation of successive experiences; in other words, not as an intuition but as a combination of perceptions; and while Plato, and in some measure the Cynics also, placed the summum bonum in the attainment, by means of dialectics, of the abstract idea of the good, the Cyrenaics placed it in the collection of the greatest number of agreeable perceptions, and the true philosopher, according to them, was one who actively, methodically, and successfully carried on the pursuit of pleasure. Consequently, as agreeable perceptions were continually to be sought as good and the contrary to be avoided as bad in themselves, perception of sensible objects became the criterion of all knowledge and the object of all action, and therefore truth both theoretical and practical. (Sextus Empir. adv. Mathematicos,' vii., § 191-200.) The chief successors of Aristippus were Theodorus, Hegesias, and Anniceris. Theodorus perceived the necessity for some principle, in addition to the mere collection of agreeable sensations; for without some effort of the understanding to determine which of many gratifica tions was to be preferred, it would be impossible, he thought, to obtain the maximum of gratification; and he therefore set the understanding over the senses as a regulating and restraining faculty. He is said to have been banished from Athens for denying the existence of the gods. (Diog., Laërt., ii., § 97.) Hegesias, following in the steps of Theodorus, insisted still more than he did upon the inadequacy of the senses as the criteria of the desirable, and at last even went so far as to assert that nothing was in itself either agreeable or the contrary, and that life and everything in life should be a matter of indifference to the wise man. In this assertion of the principle of indifference he made an approach to the doctrines of Epicurus and the Stoics in the point in which those two opposite systems met. Cicero tells us ("Tuscul. Disput.,' i., c. 34) that his book called aroкартерŵν caused so many suicides that he was forbidden by one of the Ptolemies to lecture on the worthlessness of life. In the philosophy of Anniceris and his followers the original principles of the Cyrenaics were quite lost, and though he also, in a popular way recommended the pursuit of the agreeable, he denied that it depended in any way upon mere sensible impressions, for that the wise man might be happy in spite of all annoyances; that friendship was to be sought, not for the sake of any immediate advantage to be derived from it, but on account of the good-will which it generated; and that for a friend's sake a man should encounter even annoyances and troubles. (Diog. Laërt. ii., § 96, 97.) These are the doctrines of a mere popular morality, and can hardly be ascribed to one school more than to any other. It will be remarked by every one that the original tenets of this school were very similar to those of Epicurus; indeed, with the exception of the atomic system which he borrowed from Democritus and Leucippus, the two systems differed only in this: the Cyrenaics placed the great object of man in the positive and active pursuit of the agreeable, while Epicurus made it consist in a perfect rest of mind and in freedom from pain; for he considered the agreeable as something merely negative, as the pleasing harmony produced by exemption from all passion and appetite. The philosophy of Epicurus may therefore be considered as the successor, in one point of view, of the system of Aristippus.

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(See also Ritter's Geschichte der Philosophie; Hegel's Geschichte der Philosophie; and G. H. Lewes's Biographical History of Philosophy.) CYSTIN (C,,H,,N,O,S,?), Cystic Oxide. A crystalline substance constituting a very rare form of human calculus. It is neutral, fusible by heat, and furnishes by destructive distillation a very fetid ammoniacal water. It is insoluble in water and in alcohol, but the fixed alkalies and their carbonates dissolve it readily. Cystin is also soluble in many of the acids.

CYTISIN. A non-azotised bitter substance, extracted from the Cytisus laburnum. It appears to be identical with cathartin. [CATHARTIN.]

CZAR, or TZAR, the Russian title of the monarch of Russia. Some have supposed it to be derived from Cæsar or Kaisar, but the Russians distinguish between Czar and Kesar, which last they use for emperor. The sovereign of Russia styles himself also Autocrat of all the Russias. It is only since the time of Peter the Great that the title of emperor has been given to him by the senate, and afterwards by the other courts of Europe. Before Peter's time, the sovereign of Russia was styled grand duke in European diplomacy. The consort of the czar is styled czarina.

D, and those

which occupies the fourth place in the Hebrew alphabet and those palato-dentals. It readily interchanges with those of the same organ. The German language and the English offer an abundance of examples. 1. D in German corresponds to th in English, as dein, thine; denk-en, think; du, thou; dieb, thief; donner, thunder; dorn, thorn; durch, through; tod, death; bruder, brother; erde, earth; leder, leather; &c. And on the other hand, th in German, which however is not pronounced as among us, corresponds to d in English, as thau, dew; thal, dale; thaler, dollar; thu-n, do; that, deed; theil, dole and deal; roth, red; noth, need; muth, mood.

dove: tief, deep; traum, dream; tod, death; brot, bread; breit, broad; 2. 7 in German to d in English, as tag, day; taub, deaf; taube,

wort, word; bart, beard.

3. D in Latin to z or ss, or s final in German, and t in English, as decem, zehen or zehn, ten; digitus, zehe, toe; duo, zwey, two; dingua, (the same as lingua), zunge, tongue; dens (dent) zahn, tooth; cor (cord-is), herz, heart; duc-ere, zieh-en, tug: doma-re, zahm-en, tame; sud-or, schweiss, sweat; pes (ped-is), fuss, foot; ed-ere, ess-en, eat; cludere, schliess-en, shut; od-it, hass-en, hate; quod, was, what; id, es, it; grandis, gross, great.

D

4. D is interchangeable with 1, and this most freely. Compare the Greek forms Οδυσσευς, Πολυδευκης, δαψιλης, δακρυ-ω, δε-ω, δολιχος, with the Latin Ulixes, Pollux, lapsilis, lacruma, liga-re, longus. In the Greek language itself compare dede with deios, dados with das (dad-os); and in the Latin, sella, scala, mala, ralla, with the verbs sede-o, scand-o, mand-o, rad-o. Vesidia and Digentia, two small streams of ancient Italy, are now called respectively Versiglia and Licenza. So the Italians say either edera or ellera for ivy; and the Latin cauda, a tail, is in Italian coda, in Spanish cola. But one of the most remarkable instances of this change exists in the words eleven and twelve, in both of which the has grown out of a d in decem. In the same way, while the Greek has Seka for ten, the Lithuanian prefers lika; and of two Sanscrit dialects, one has dasan, the other lasan, for the same numeral. The people of Madrid call themselves Madrilenos. The language of Madagascar is Malagash.

5. D attaches itself to the letter n. Thus we find Gr. Tew-w, and Lat. tend-o, stretch; Lat. canis, Eng. hound; Lat. sonus, Eng. sound; Lat. and Gr. root μev or men, Eng. mind; Ger. abend, Eng. even or even-ing; Ger. donner, Eng. thunder; Ger. niemand, Lat. ne-mon, Eng. no-man. And our English term husband, is a corruption of house-man (Lat. dominus). This d is particularly apt to insert itself after an n when an follows. Thus from the Latin ciner-is, gener, tener, come the French cendre, gendre, tendre. And the latter language has the futures viendrai, tiendrai, where analogy would have led to venir-ai, tenir-ai.

6. Di before a vowel is changed into a g or j, as Dianus or Janus, the god of light (dies) in Roman mythology; Diana or Jana, the goddess of light. So Diespiter and Jupiter are the same name. The Latin hodie is in Italian ogge. Sometimes a 2 is preferred to a g, especially in the Greek, Italian, and German languages. In the Greek, for example, Sa is used for dia; hence (aw, vivo, and daura, are connected, and the same town on the African coast is called indifferently Hippo Zarytus or H. Diarrhutos. So in England we write the name of a certain town Odiham, and call it Ojam.

7. Du before a vowel is changed into b or v. [See B.] With this principle is connected the change of d into v, in the words suavis, suadeo and ȧous, clavis and claudo, and the river Suevus or Oder.

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8. Instances occur where d is interchanged with both the other medials; with b, as in Latin barba, verbum, English beard, word; with g, as in the Greek Δημητηρ from γη μητηρ, πηδος, “ the beech," as well as φηγος, and in the two names of the African city, Καρχηδων and Carthago. One may often hear in the mouths of children dood for good, and do for go.

9. D when flanked by vowels often disappears in the transition of words from Latin into French. Compare Melodunum, Ludovicus, vadum, vadis, medius, fides, nudus, cauda, assidere, videre, with Melun, Louis, gué, vas, mi, foi, nu, queue, asseor, voir.

For the forms of the letter D see ALPHABET.

D as a Roman numeral signifies five hundred. It is more correctly written I. [NUMERALS.]

DA CAPO ("from the head," or "beginning"), an Italian musical term, signifying that the first part, or strain, is to be repeated, and to conclude at the sign of the pause (), or at the word fine. The phrases in use are, Da Capo al fine, and Da Capo al segno; that is, From the beginning (or over again) to the fine," or "to the sign." This term is abbreviated by the letters D. C.

DACTYL is the name of a metrical foot consistir g of a long and two short syllables, as the Latin word littora; or of an accented syllable followed by two unaccented, as gallery.

DACTY'LICS. To this term belong all those metres which consist of a repetition of dactyls or equivalent feet. The long syllable may be the first in the line, as it is in the heroic verse of Homer; or it may be preceded by one or two short syllables. Thus the modern anapastic verse is strictly a dactylic metre, as

"If he ha'd any faults, he has le'ft us in doubt."

Of the dactylic metres the most common are the hexameter, which, as its name implies, consists of six feet [HEXAMETER], and the pentameter, of five feet.

The dactylic metre often alternates with trochaic measures. Such spelling words with the fingers is called dactylology. The positions is the case in the sapphic and alcaic stanzas. DACTYLO'LOGY. The simple art of communicating ideas by

which the fingers are made to assume correspond to the alphabetic characters of a language, and the series of alphabetic signs is perhaps better known under the name of the manual alphabet. The chief, and the most useful application of dactylology is in the instruction of the deaf and dumb. In the various institutions for this class of persons, dactylology is almost universally employed. The letters may be formed by the two hands, or with only one hand: a two-handed alphabet is used in the English institutions; on the continent of Europe, and in America, the one-handed alphabet is employed. Either of them may be learned by an hour's practice; they are often taught to the deaf and dumb, in conjunction with the written alphabet, in a few days.

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fingers, and that, by acquiring the manual alphabet, they can communicate with them. Such persons should bear in mind that the deaf are shut out from all spoken languages; that before they can use or understand a written or spoken language, they must learn it; and that such an acquirement is made, under their disadvantages, by a very slow process. To the deaf and dumb under instruction, dactylology is useful as a means of communication between them and their teacher; at first, in such select language as the pupil understands, or as may be readily explained by mimic signs or other auxiliaries. As the pupil advances in the knowledge of words and their collocations, this mode of communication becomes more satisfactory, and at length he can use it to converse on all ordinary subjects with the accuracy of writing and with much greater rapidity.

Degérando has clearly and fully explained the use and value of this very simple art. (De l'Education des Sourds-Muets,' Paris, 1827.) He says dactylology is to alphabetic writing what that is to speech. Formed upon writing as its model, it represents it precisely as writing represents words. But in this connection between dactylology and writing, the reciprocal utility of the two orders of proceeding is at the same time the reverse of what we have remarked in the connection between writing and speech. In fact, the office of dactylology consists in giving to writing that moveableness which speech enjoys, and which the first loses in the fixedness of depicted characters. Dactylology is writing set free from its material dress, and from those conditions necessary for the employment of the pen or pencil; it carries with itself these instruments; it is thus ready in all familiar conversations; it affords help at all times and in all places. It is thus that dactylology is little more than a toy for those who already possess, in speech, a means of communication more easy and more appropriate to all circumstances. It is thus also that it becomes an essential resource to those who are deprived of speech, to whom it renders a portion of those advantages, supplying for them writing, and giving it in some manner a new extension. However, dactylology is far from affording all the advantages of speech, while it loses a portion of those which are peculiar to the privilege of writing. On the one hand it is much less rapid than speech; it is unfurnished with that expression which belongs to the human voice of that infinite diversity which the soul finds within for pourtraying all the sentiments which affect it; it has nothing of that harmony, that secret charm, that power of imitation of which speech is so capable; its employment, besides, obliges the suspension of all business and all action. On the other hand, it has none of that durability which renders writing so favourable to the operations of reflection; it is not able to exhibit its signs but after a successive manner; it cannot preserve in composing, as writing does, those vast pictures which the inventive faculty embraces simultaneously, and subsequently surveys, in every sense, with perfect liberty. Dactylology shares in some of the inconveniences of speech, and in some of those of writing; it is as fugitive as the first, it is as complicated in its forms as the second. (Vol. i., pp. 259, 60.)

The manual alphabet has been employed as a medium of intercourse between the deaf and dumb, and blind persons; it is also commonly used by the former when they have to converse in the dark. As the art addresses itself to the sense of touch, as well as to that of sight, it is easy to touch another person's hands, who is acquainted with the hand alphabet, in such parts or positions as to enable him to read the words or sentences thus conveyed. Bulwer, one of the earliest writers on the instruction of the deaf [BULWER, in BIOG. DIV.], was fully aware of the advantage of manual alphabets in their instruction; and it seems strange that he did not invent one, or ascertain and make known the merits of one, of which he thus writes:

"A pregnant example, of the officious nature of the touch, in supplying the defect or temporall incapacity of other senses, we have in one Master Babington, of Burntwood, in the county of Essex, an ingenious gentleman, who, through some sicknesse, becoming deaf, doth, notwithstanding, feele words, and, as if he had an eye in his finger, sees signes in the dark; whose wife discourseth very perfectly with him by a strange way of arthrologie, or alphabet contrived on the joynts of his fingers; who, taking him by the hand in the night, can so discourse with him very exactly; for he feeling the joynts which she toucheth for letters, by them collected into words, very readily conceives what she would suggest to him." ( Chirologia, or the Natural Language of the Hand,' p. 106.)

Perhaps the first manual alphabet which was published in England was that of Dalgarno, the most intelligent author on the subject of the instruction of the deaf and dumb next to Bulwer; he published it in 1680. As few copies of his work are now to be met with, we shall give his hand-alphabet, and accompany it by as much of his own explanation as seems necessary for understanding his views on dacty lology. "After much search and niany changes, I have at last fixt upon a finger or hand-alphabet according to my mind; for I think it cannot be considerably mended, either by myself or any other (without making tinker's work), for the purposes for which I have intended it; that is, a distinct placing of and easy pointing to the single letters; with the like distinct and easy abbreviation of double and triple consonants."

"The scheme (I think) is so distinct and plain in itself, that it needs not much explication, at least for the single letters, which are as dis

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tinct by their places as the middle and two extremes of a right line particularly in the places for the vowels. The one-handed alphabet

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