representing all the gifts which Ahuramazda, as the only Lord, grants to those who worship him with a sincere heart, by always speaking truth, and performing good actions. In the eyes of the prophet they were no personages; that idea being imported into the sayings of the great master by some of his successors.

VOHU-MANO (Bahman) is regarded as the vital faculty in all living beings of the good creation. Originally, his name was nothing but a term for the good principle, as emanating from Ahuramazda, who is, therefore, called the father of Vohu-manô. He pervades the whole living good creation, and all the good thoughts, words, and deeds of men are wrought by him.

ASHA-VAHISHTA (Ardibahisht) represents the blazing flame of fire, the light in luminaries, and brightness and splendour of any kind whatever, wherever it may exist. The first part of the name, asha (plural of ashem), has various meanings, such as “rectitude, righteousness, truth,” and its epithet vahishta means originally "most splendid, beautiful," but was afterwards used in the more general sense of "best." Light being of the nature of Ahuramazda, and being believed to pervade the whole good creation, Asha-vahishta represents the omnipresence of the Divine Being. Light maintaining the vitality of the whole creation, animate and inanimate, and being the cause of all growth, Asha-vahishta is the preserver of all life and all that is good. He represents, in this respect, God's Providence.

KSHATHRA-VAIRYA (Shahrivar) presides over metals and is the giver of wealth. His name means simply "possession, wealth," afterwards it was applied to metal and money. Wealth is considered as a gift from Ahuramazda.

SPENTA-ARMAITI (Spendarmad or Isfendarmad), "the bountiful Armaiti," represents the earth. The original meaning of Armaiti, as we have seen above (see p. 274), however, is "devotion, obedience." She represents the pious and obedient heart of the true worshipper of Ahura

mazda, who serves God alone with body and soul. When the name is applied to the earth, it means that she is the servant of men, who, if well treated (ie., cultivated), will yield abundance of food.

HAURVATAD and AMERETAD (Khordâd and Amardâd) preside over vegetation, and produce all kinds of fruits; but this is very likely not their original meaning. As the names indicate (Haurvatâd means "completeness, health," and Ameretâd, "immortality "), they represent the preservation of the original uncorrupted state of the good creation, and its remaining in the same condition as that in which it was created by God. They are generally both mentioned together, and express, therefore, a single compound idea.

Quite separate from the celestial council stands SRAOSHA (Srosh), who is, however, regarded as an archangel vested with very high powers. While the Ameshaspentas in Zarathushtra's eyes represented nothing but the qualities and gifts of Ahuramazda, Sraosha seems to have been considered by him as a personality. He is the angel who stands between God and man, the great teacher of the good religion who instructed the prophet in it. He shows the way to heaven and pronounces judgment on human actions after death (for further information see the Srosh Yasht, p. 189). Originally his name meant "hearing" (from the root sru to hear), which, taken in a religious sense, means the sacred tradition. In this respect we may best compare the word with the Sanskrit Shruti, by which name the Brahmans understand the sacred tradition, as laid down in the various parts of the Vedas, especially in that which treats of sacrificial rites. All that is said of Srosh, in the Srosh Yasht, fully agrees with this meaning of his name. We must, therefore, regard him only as the personification of the whole divine service, including the prayers as well as the sacrificial rites. When he is said to be the guardian of the whole creation, and that without his protection the world would fall a prey to the demons,

it is meant that men must offer up prayers to God and worship him; and should they fail to do so, the good mind (Vohu-mano) within them becomes powerless, and the bad mind (Akem-mano) takes entire possession of them, instigating them to commit sins and crimes, in consequence of which they will become utterly cast away, both in this life and in that to come. Srosh fights chiefly against the Devas. This means, that the Zoroastrian divine service is destined to counterbalance the mischief which the Indian Devas were supposed to be doing to the good creation.

Like Ahuramazda, his adversary Angrô-mainyush was, in later times, supposed to be also surrounded by a council. This idea is completely foreign to the older texts, and is evidently only an imitation of the celestial council. The number of councillors of the infernal kingdom was likewise fixed at six (not in the Avesta texts, but only in the Bundahish), who were called pre-eminently Devas and headed by Angrô-mainyush, who, for this reason, was called Daêvanam Daevó, or archdemon. The first in rank after Angrô-mainyush was AKEM-MANO, which means the "evil mind," and is nothing but Zarathushtra's philosophical term of the second principle, the "non-reality." He produces all bad thoughts in men, and makes them utter bad words and commit sins. His influence is checked by Vohu-manô, the good mind. The second seat in the infernal council is occupied by the King of the Vedic gods, INDRA; the third place is assigned to SAURVA, the Shiva of the Hindus. Fourth in rank is NAONHAITHYA, the collective name of the Indian Ashvins (Dioskuri); the fifth and sixth places are occupied by two personifications, DARKNESS and POISON (see the Bundahish, edited by Westergaard, p. 5).

There are a good many other names of Devas to be found in the Zend-Avesta; but almost all are nothing but personifications of vices and evils. Thus, for instance, Alshema means "rapine, attack," Driwish is "poverty," Daiwish, "deceit," &c. While the celestial council is

always taking measures for promoting life and spreading truth, the infernal councillors are constantly plotting designs for the destruction of life, and endeavouring to spread lies and falsehood everywhere. The Zoroastrian idea of the Devil and the infernal kingdom coincides entirely with the Christian doctrine. The Devil is a murderer and father of lies according to both the Bible and the Zend-Avesta.

In consequence of this entire separation of the two parts of Ahuramazda, and the substitution of two independent rulers governing the universe, the unity of the Supreme Being was lost, and Monotheism was superseded by Dualism. But this deviation from, and entire change of, the prophet's doctrine could not satisfy the minds of all the divines and philosophers in ancient Persia. It was very likely only the innovation of an influential party or sect, probably that which was called Zendik, i.e., following the interpretation (Zend), and which was opposed to that of the Magi (see p. 14). That Dualism was actually the doctrine of the Zendiks, we best learn from the commencement of the Bundahish, which book purports to expound the lore of this party. The Magi seem still to have clung to the prophet's doctrine of the unity of the Supreme Being. But to refute the heretical opinions of the Zendiks, which were founded on interpretations of passages from the sacred texts, a new and fresh proof of the unity of the Supreme Being was required. This was found in the term Zarvan akarana, "boundless time," which we meet with occasionally in the Zend-Avesta. The chief passage, no doubt, was Vend. xix. 9 (see pp. 24 and 254); but the interpretation for proving that Zarvan akarana means the Supreme Being, out of whom Ahuramazda and Angrômainyush are said to have sprung, rests on a grammatical misunderstanding, as we have seen above (p. 24). This interpretation, however, must be very old; for all the present Dasturs believe in it as an incontrovertible fact.

That this doctrine of Zarvan akarana was commonly believed in Persia, during the times of the Sasanians, may

be distinctly seen from the reports quoted above (pp. 12-14). The true meaning of the expression, that "the beneficent Spirit made (them) in boundless time," is that God (Ahuramazda) is from eternity, self-existing, neither born nor created. Only an eternal being can be independent of the bounds of time to which all mortals are subject.

4. THE TWO Intellects; Two LIVES; HEAven and Hell; RESURRECTION; AND PALINGENESIS.

In the Gâthas we frequently find "two intellects" (khratu) and "two lives" (ahu) spoken of. These notions, therefore, formed undoubtedly part of Spitama Zarathushtra's speculation. The two intellects are distinguished as the "first" and "last." From the passages where they are mentioned (Yas. xliv. 19, xlviii. 4), their meaning cannot be ascertained with certainty. But happily we find them. mentioned in later Avesta writings (see Yt. ii. 1) by more. expressive names; one of the intellects is called âsnó khratu, "the original intellect or wisdom," which we can. best identify with the "first" in the Gâthas; the other is styled gaoshô-srútô khratu, “the wisdom heard by the ear," which corresponds to the "last." Another name of the "first" is mainyu khratu (mînô khird), “spiritual or heavenly wisdom." Now we cannot be mistaken as to the meaning of these two intellects. The "first intellect" is not from earth, but from heaven; not human, but divine. The last intellect" represents what man has heard and learned by experience. The wisdom gained in this way is, of course, inferior to the heavenly wisdom. Only the latter can instruct man in the higher matters of life, as we see from a later book called "Mînôkhird," which is written in Pâzand (see p. 105).

The "two lives" are distinguished as astrat, "bodily," or parâhu, "prior life," and as manahya, "mental," or daibitya, "the second" (see Yas. xxviii. 3; xliii. 3; xlv. 1; xlvi. 19). Their meaning is clear enough, and requires no further comment; they express our idea "body and soul."