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James Madison was elected President in 1808, and took his seat on the 4th of March following; George Clinton was re-elected to the VicePresidency, and filled that office with ability up to the time of his death, April 20th, 1812. Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, was elected VicePresident for Mr. Madison's second term, and also died in office, November 23d, 1814, not long after his installation. Mr. Madison's first term of office commenced with James Monroe, of Virginia, as Secretary of State; Albert Gallatin, of Pennsylvania, still at the head of the Treasury; Paul Hamilton, of South Carolina, Secretary of the Navy; General William Eustis, of Massachusetts, Secretary of War; and a continuation of Mr. Granger, of Connecticut, as chief of the Post-Office department-and Mr. Rodney, of Delaware, as Attorney General.

Changes were presently made, however, and before the close of the executive's second term, his cabinet stood as follows:-James Monroe, Secretary of State; Alexander J. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the Treasury; B. W. Crowninshield, of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy; William H. Crawford, of Georgia, Secretary of War; William Pinckney, of Maryland, Attorney General; Return J. Meigs, of Ohio, Post-Master General.

In March, 1809, Congress repealed the embargo, and instituted a law prohibiting all intercourse with France and Great Britain, until the offensive edicts of either should be revoked. In revenge for this, another decree was issued by Bonaparte, at Rambouillet, directing that all American vessels then in the ports of France, or that might afterward enter, should be directly seized and confiscated. Expostulation in such case might seem vain; but General Armstrong having been despatched as American envoy to the court of France, he was assured by the minister of state of Napoleon, that the obnoxious edicts would be fully revoked on the 1st of November ensuing. Confiding in this assurance, the president, on the 2d of November, issued his proclamation declaring that all intercourse with Great Britain was prohibited, while an unrestrained commerce with France was allowed. This conciliatory movement was hailed with satisfaction alike by the French and American people-though it has been strongly suspected the intention of Napoleon in allowing it, was only to involve America in a war with Great Britain-thereby materially to assist him in his design of universal conquest. It was on the occasion of this arrangement, that the great soldier of fortune is said to have descended so far from his loftiness as to indulge in a bon mot. The former American minister sent to negotiate with him, was a little hard of hearing the present one quite imperfect in his mastery of the French language. "These Americans are à queer people," said he, "first they send me a deaf minister, and then they send me a dumb one."

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Great Britain having expressed a willingness to repeal her orders whenever France should repeal her decrees, she was now called upon, by the American envoy, to fulfil her engagement. She objected, that the French decrees could not be considered as repealed, a letter from the minister of state not being, for that purpose, a document of sufficient authority. In answer to this objection, proof was presented that the French admiralty courts considered them as repealed, and that no American vessel, although many had entered the ports of France, had been subjected to their provisions. Great Britain, however, still attempted to enforce her orders. For this purpose she had stationed ships of war before the principal harbours of the United States. Merchantmen departing or returning were all boarded, searched, and many of them sent to British ports as legal prizes. Impressments, too, were frequent; and the British officers, entertaining exalted ideas of their naval strength, and holding in contempt the republican flag, exhibited on all occasions an extreme insolence of behaviour. In one instance, however, their aggression was deservedly

punished. Commodore Rogers, sailing in the frigate President, met in the evening a vessel on the coast of Virginia. He hailed, but instead o receiving an answer, was hailed in turn, and a shot was fired which struck the mainmast of the President. The fire was instantly returned by the commodore, and continued for a few minutes, when finding that his antagonist was of inferior force, and that her guns were almost silenced, he desisted. On hailing again, an answer was given, that the ship was the British sloop of war Little Belt, of eighteen guns. Thirty-two of her men were killed and wounded, and the ship was much disabled.

In the summer of 1811, an earnest and final attempt was made by the American government to arrange satisfactorily with Great Britain the subject of impressment, and other points mooted between them. · No approach toward a reconciliation could be made. It was proven that not less than nine hundred American merchant vessels had been seized by British cruizers and confiscated, since the year 1803. It was also shown that an agent had been employed by the British authorities in Canada, in time of peace, to spread disaffection between the states, and if possible to bring about a division of the Union. The patience of the nation was exhausted forbearance would no longer do. Early in November, 1811, President Madison called Congress together, and laid before them the state of foreign relations, recommending that the Republic should be placed in an attitude to maintain by force its wounded honour and essential interests. The representatives of the people determined to act in accordance with the views of the president. Laws were therefore enacted, providing for the increase of the regular army to thirty-five thousand men; for the augmentation of the naval establishment; for arming the militia, and for borrowing eleven millions of dollars.

About this time events occurred which turned the public attention for an instant in a new direction. The Indian tribes residing near the remote lakes and the sources of the Mississippi had for some years past displayea symptoms of hostility, murdering a number of whites and robbing others General Harrison, with a small force, was sent into their territories, instructed to negotiate if possible, but to fight if necessary. On the 6th of November he arrived at Tippecanoe, their principal town, where he was met by Indian messengers, with whom an agreement was made that hostilities should not take place before the next morning, and that then an amicable conference should be held. Just before daybreak, the savages, in violation of their engagement, made a sudden and furious attack upon the troops in their encampment. Nothing but the precaution of sleeping in order of battle, on their arms, saved them from total defeat. A dreadful slaughter was made; but the savages were finally repulsed, dispersed, and their town laid waste. A strong belief was entertained, founded upon credible testimony, that they had been incited to hostility by British agents stationed among them.

Congress continued to be employed until the 20th of May, in making preparations for war, though still cherishing a hope that a change of policy in Europe would render unnecessary an appeal to arms. On that day the Hornet arrived from London, bringing information that no prospect existed of a favourable change. On the 1st of June, the president sent a message to Congress, recounting the wrongs still unatoned for which Great Britain had inflicted, and submitting the question whether the United States should continue to endure them or resort to war? The message was considered with closed doors-and on the 18th an act was passed declaring war against Great Britain. The vote stood, in the House of Representatives, 79 to 49; in the Senate, 19 to 13.

CHAPTER III.

THE WAR OF 1812-1814.

THE people of the United States remembered with pride, the patriotism and bravery exhibited by their army in the revolutionary war. Along period of peace and prosperity had increased their confidence in their own strength; and the belief was generally entertained, that victory over the same foe would now be so much the more certainly and easily gained, as the nation was more rich and populous. Perhaps they did not reflect that peace had impaired the military energies of the republic, while their enemy, by constant exercise in arms, had acquired not only additional strength, but greater skill to use and apply it.

From the veteran officers who had acquired fame in the former conflict, a selection was made to fill the principal posts in the new army. Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was appointed major-general and commander-in-chief: he was at the battle of Bunker Hill, and in the expedition to Quebec; and had distinguished himself on other occasions. Thomas Pinckney, of South Carolina, was also appointed a major-general; and Wilkinson, Hull, Hampton, and Bloomfield, were among the brigadiers. With such names at the head of their forces, the people might seem to an extent justified in expecting soon to see brave deeds enrolled on the escutcheon of their country's fame. Yet strangely different were the first results.

At the time of the declaration of war, General Hull was also governor of the Michigan territory, of which Detroit was the capital. On the 12th of July, with two thousand regulars and volunteers, he crossed the river dividing the United States from Canada. On the same day, he addressed a proclamation to the Canadians, tendering them the blessings of civil and religious liberty, and assuring them, in a lofty tone, "that his force was sufficient to break down all opposition," and yet was but the van-guard of one much greater. It appeared to be his purpose to attack Malden (the strongest fortress in Upper Canada, and then but weakly guarded), and thence proceed to Montreal. Had the attack been instantly made, success would have undoubtedly crowned it: but a month was wasted in ruinous delay, allowing the ardour of the troops to cool, and Malden to be reinforced. Distrust and contempt took the place of confidence in the breasts of the Canadians; and at this critical moment information was received that Mackinaw, an American post of importance above Detroit, had been surprised, and had surrendered to a large body of British and Indians, who were rushing down in numbers sufficient to overwhelm the American forces. Panic-struck, General Hull hastened back to Detroit.

General Brock, the commander at Malden, pursued him with a force superior in number, but composed chiefly of militia and Indians. On the 14th of August, he erected batteries opposite Detroit. The next day he began a cannonade upon the American fortifications, which was returned with precision and effect. On the 16th, the enemy crossed the river, taking post about three miles above the city. Meeting with no resistance, and hearing that some of the American troops were absent, General Brock resolved to march directly forward and assault the fort. The troops, cool and undaunted, awaited in good order the approach of the enemy, anticipating an easy victory. To the astonishment of all, General Hull forbade the artillery to fire, and hung out a white flag in token of a wish to capitulate. A correspondence between the two generals was im inediately opened, which ended in the surrender of the army and of the territory of Michigan.

It is impossible to describe the indignation of the soldiers and citizens.

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when they saw themselves thus delivered, by the authority of one man into the power of an enemy whom they supposed they might easily have conquered. Even the women were indignant at so shameful a submis. sion. And the same feelings pervaded the entire Union, as all had looked in this quarter with the most confident anticipations of perfect success. On being exchanged, General Hull was arrested and brought to trial, charged with treason, cowardice, and neglect of duty. The court-martial not having legal jurisdiction in treasonable matters, declined giving judg ment on the first charge; but he was found guilty on the other charges, and sentenced to be shot. The president, however, in consideration of former good conduct, and the age of the prisoner, remitted the punishment of death.

The people of Ohio and Kentucky were alarmed. Nearly ten thousand citizens made a tender of their services and a part of them were placed under the command of General W. H. Harrison and marched toward the territory of Michigan. But great and numerous were the difficulties encountered; the volunteers were unwilling to submit to the wholesome re straints of discipline; and winter arrived before any important undertaking could be accomplished. Several incursions were made into the country of the savages, who, owing to the influence of British agents and a fanatic termed the prophet, had become almost universally hostile. For the purpose of invading Canada in another quarter, an army of regulars and militia were assembled on the northern frontier of New-York. It was far less numerous than the government had anticipated. So happy was the condition of even the poorest class of American citizens, that few could be induced to enlist as soldiers. And in some of the states the plausible doctrine was maintained, that the officers of the general government have no power over the militia until called into regular service and consigned to their authority by the state executive; and that even then they cannot be compelled to march beyond the boundary of the republic. Several governors actually withheld their militia when called for by the president, and thus diminished the amount of one species of force upon which the general government had relied.

General Van Rensselaer, of the New-York militia, being the senior of ficer on that frontier, had the command of these troops, which were called the army of the centre. His head-quarters were at Lewistown, on the river Niagara, and on the opposite was Queenstown, a fortified British post. The militia displaying great eagerness to be led against the enemy, the general determined to cross over to Queenstown. The first attempt was defeated by tempestuous weather. On the 13th of October, a party led by Colonel Van Rensselaer effected a landing, although opposed by a British force stationed on the bank. The colonel was severely wounded, but the troops, under captains Ogilvie and Wool, advanced to storm the fort. They gained possession, but at the moment of success, General Brock arrived from a neighbouring post, with a reinforcement of six hundred men. These, although the most numerous, were gallantly driven back by the American troops. In attempting to rally them, General Brock and his aid-de-camp were both killed. General Van Rensselaer, who had previously crossed over, now returned to hasten the embarkation of the rear division. But those who had lately shown so much eagerness to meet the enemy, now utterly refused to pass beyond the national boundary! He entreated and remonstrated, but in vain. Meanwhile the enemy, having received another reinforcement, advanced to attack the Americans in the fort. A desperate and bloody conflict ensued, of which the militia at Lewistown were calm spectators-making a constitutional privilege their plea for cowardice. In the end, the British were completely victorious: so that of above one thousand men, who had crossed into Canada, but few effected their escape.

Soon after this disaster, General Van Rensselaer retired from the service, and was succeeded by General Alexander Smyth, of Virginia. In & turgid address to the "men of New-York," he announced that in a few days he should retrieve the lost honour of the country, by planting the American standard in Canada, and invited them to share in the danger and glory of the enterprise. His force was increased speedily to four thousand five hundred men and the morning of the 28th of November, assigned as the time for crossing. The time came, but strangely enough the troops could not be got ready to pass over. Another day was appointed, and when that arrived, it was found the general had changed his plan of operations. A council of war was called, the invasion of Canada was postponed, and the troops were ordered into winter quarters. The blame of these failures was attributed by the soldiers to their commander; and so highly were they exasperated, that for several days his life was in danger from their fury.

The army of the north, which was under the immediate command of General Dearborn, was stationed at Greenbush, near Albany, and at Plattsburgh, on Lake Champlain. From the latter post, a detachment marched a short distance into Canada, surprised a small body of British and InOther dians, and destroyed a considerable quantity of public stores. movements were anxiously expected by the people; but after the misfortunes at Detroit and Niagara, the general deemed it inexpedient to engage in any important enterprise: and thus ended the campaign of 1812. Although on many occasions extraordinary gallantry had been displayed, yet nothing was accomplished, and the losses sustained were numerous and heavy. Those who approved the declaration of war, felt disappointed, mortified, and dejected. Those who were opposed to it, assumed a bolder tone of censure, and evinced a more determined spirit of opposition.

While, however, defeat and disgrace attended the American arms on land, far different results were witnessed on the ocean. On that great field where were committed the offences which led to the war, they gained a rich harvest of victory and glory. Upon the declaration of war, the American officers and seamen were filled with ardour to avenge the sufferings of their impressed fellow-citizens, and to vindicate the honour of the republican flag. Such ships of war as were ready for sea, immediately sailed in search of the enemy. On the 19th of August, Captain Hull, who commanded the Constitution, Of forty-four guns, descried a British frigate; his crew, giving three cheers, requested to be placed alongside of their antagonist. For three quarters of an hour the latter endeavoured, by skilful manoeuvring, to obtain the advantage of position. Defeated in this, she advanced toward the Constitution, firing broadsides at intervals. When she had approached within half pistol shot, a tremendous cannonade burst upon her from the American frigate. In thirty minutes, every mast and nearly every spar being shot away, she struck her flag. She was found to be the Guerriere, of thirty-eight guns, commanded by Captain Dacres, who had been cruizing in quest of an American frigate. her mast-head she had displayed her name, and a flag upon which was he taunting inscription, "No Little Belt." "No Little Belt." Of her crew, fifty were killed and sixty-four wounded; and the vessel itself was so much injured that it was set fire to and blown up. The damage sustained by the Constitution was very slight; of her crew, but seven were killed and seven wounded; and the ship in a few hours was ready for another action. This battle was the more remarkable, as Great Britain had not for thirty years previous lost a frigate in any conflict with a similar equality of force. Congress voted fifteen thousand dollars to the crew of the Constitution, as a recompense for the loss of their prize, and the officers were promoted.

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