into the other chamber any number of new members necessary to register its decrees-ay, and exercising it too; demanding that the power of the crown and of the mother country should be a mere nullity, and asserting that the only duty of their representative was to transfer its patronage to Such was the them for the purpose of perpetually confirming their own. system which Sir Charles Metcalfe found in full operation; to which, from the first, he intimated himself to be in a state of 'antagonism;' to which he opposed himself under the great difficulties which circumstances had arrayed against him; against which he has now taken his stand, and called on everything that is loyal and constitutional, on every man who loves the British connexions and respects the principles of constitutional liberty as distinguished from mere democracy, to rally around him.”

We make no mention in this place of the internal insurrections and piratical invasions of Canada in the years 1838 and 1839, but refer the reader to the "History of England," p. 739, and the "History of the United States," p. et seq.

NEWFOUNDLAND.

THIS large island of North America, situated near the Gulf of St. Lawrence, is supposed to have been first discovered by the Norwegians, about the beginning of the 11th century; be it so or not, it was not generally made known till John Cabot visited it in 1497, and gave it its present name. Immediately after this, we find that an extensive fishery was carried on, by the Portuguese and French, on the neighbouring banks; but no sucsuccessful attempt at a settlement was made till 1623, when Lord Baltimore established a colony on the south-east part of the island, and appointed his son governor. In 1633 some colonists arrived from Ireland, and in 1654 a few English settlers came over, having the authority of a parliamentary grant. The Newfoundland fishery has for nearly a century been the occasion of disputes between the English, French, and Americaps; though for a great portion of the time the English were enabled to monopolize the trade. Since the peace of 1815, however, it has been very different; the French and Americans enjoying the greatest share of it.

The other British Possessions in North America are NEW BRUNSWICK, NOVA SCOTIA, CAPE BRETON, and PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND; but want of space prevents us from entering on the particular history of either.

GREENLAND.

UNDER the name of Greenland is denoted the most easterly parts of America, stretching towards the North Pole, and likewise some islands to the northward of the continent of Europe, lying in very high latitudes. This country is divided into West and East Greenland. West Greenland had long been considered to be a part of the continent of America, but It is bounded on the recent geographers seem to think it an island. west by Batin's bay, on the south by Davis' straits, and on the east by he North Atlantic Ocean. ‹

This country was first peopled by Europeans from Iceland, headed by Eric Rande in the eighth century; and a regular intercourse was mainained between Norway and Greenland till the year 1406; from that ime all correspondence was cut off, and al. knowledge of Greenland

buried in oblivion. It is supposed that a nation called Schrellings, whose descendants still inhabit the western part, got the better of the settlers and exterminated them. All that can be learned from the most authentic records is, that Greenland was divided into two districts, called West Bygd, and East Bygd; that the western division contained four parishes, and one hundred villages; and the eastern district was still more flourishing. This colony, in ancient times, certainly comprehended twelve extensive parishes, one hundred and ninety villages, a bishop's see, and two monasteries. Many attempts have been made to re-discover the east country, without effect, by the Danes and the English. The land has been seen, but the ice has always prevented any approach to the shore.

The Greenland Company, at Bergen, in Norway, transported a colony to the west coast; and in 1712, the Rev. Hans Egede, and others, endeavoured to reach the eastern district by coasting, but were obliged to return, owing to continual storms. That part of West Greenland which is now settled by the Danes and Norwegians, lies between the 64th and 68th degrees of north latitude; and thus far, it is said, the climate is temperate. To the northward of the 68th degree, the cold is prodigiously intense; and towards the end of August all the coast is covered with ice, which never thaws till April or May, and sometimes June. Thunder and lightning rarely happen; but the aurora borealis is very frequent and splendidly luminous. The Greenlanders are constantly employed either in fishing or hunting; at sea they pursue the whale, morse, seal, fish, and sea-fowl, and on shore they hunt the rein-deer.

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THE HISTORY OF MEXICO.

THIS rich and interesting country may be regarded as altogether a Spanish colony, though it is no longer dependent on Spain, having become a federal republic, Discovered by Fernando Cortez, A. D. 1519, it was by him taken possession of in the name of the Spanish government. The exploits by which he made himself master of this country, seem rather to belong to romance than history; the circumstances of the age, and the nature and character of the opposing powers, throw an air of universal interest over operations so multiform and diversified-as the conquest of a great and powerful state by a body of men hitherto unseen by them, possessing all the advantages of skill and experience in war, and resolution and enterprize in action.

The first conquest made by Cortez was on the river Tabasco; after which, landing at St. Juan de Ulloa, he erected a fort, where he received two ambassadors sent by the emperor of Mexico with offers of assistance. A haughty answer was the reply of Cortez; and gifts of the most costly character were heaped upon him by the natives, in the hope of conciliating peace and preventing his further advance. Dangers, however, encompassed his steps. Sedition broke out in his own camp, which he had the address not only to quell, but turn to his own advantage. A new town was founded, called La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. Still a more alarming mutiny showed itself, which he again converted into the means of executing a measure fraught with imminent risk, but calculated to superinduce the deadly courage of despair. This measure was the destruction of the fleet. Soon after this, being joined by one of the native caciques, with a force of little more than one thousand men, fifteen horses, and six cannons, he entered the state of the Tlascalans, whom, after a desperate

resistance of fourteen days, he subdued, and converted into allies. At Cholula he massacred six thousand of the natives in revenge for their treachery. Success now wafted his banners, and the capital of the empire lay before him. Received by the emperor Montezuma at the head of his nobles, Cortez was conducted to a house in the city, which he fortified in the strongest manner possible. It appears there was a prediction among the Mexicans, that a strange people should come to chastise them for their sins-a piece of superstition of which Cortez availed himself. By treachery he obtained possession of the person of Montezuma, whom he kept a prisoner for six months. Worn out at length, the Mexican emperor acknowledged himself a vassal of the Spanish throne. In the meanwhile Cortez lost no opportunity of strengthening his power, by surveys of the country, and dividing the spoils among his followers.

He was again on the point of losing the fruit of his exertions; for Velasquez, who commanded the expedition from which Cortez had been despatched from Cuba, hearing of his success, sent out a large force under Narvaez, to seize him, and take possession of Mexico. This formidable danger Cortez frustrated, as well by bribes as the rapidity of his movements, almost without bloodshed. But this he observed gave fresh spirit to the Mexicans, who attacked him on his return, and wounded him in his fortress. The wretched Montezuma, who had been placed in the van to deter the assailants from prosecuting their attacks, was wounded, and died of a broken heart. Cortez was compelled to evacuate the place secretly, but only to return with a larger body of forces at the expiration of six months. We shortly afterwards find his head-quarters at Tezcuco, where, with the assistance of the Indians, he built a flotilla of thirteen ships. Reinforced with two hundred men, eight horses, and some military stores, he renewed the siege. Gallantly was the capital defended by Guatimozin, the new emperor, and Cortez was once taken prisoner, but rescued at the expense of a severe wound. Seventy-four days did the city hold out, although the ranks of Cortez were augmented by one hundred thousand Indians. August 12, 1512, beheld Guatimozin a prisoner, and his capital in the hands of the merciless invaders-merciless to him they were, for Cortez stained the lustre of his glory by putting the brave but ill-fated monarch to the torture. But there is even in this world a retributive justice; and worldly minds, however sublimed by courage and enterprize, generally encounter reverses similar in character to their own conduct. Success had excited envy; and Cortez was doomed to find that no courage and enterprize can be altogether free from reverses. e can be altogether free from reverses. Created captain-general of New Spain (the name he had given to his new conquest) even after an order had been issued, but not executed, for his arrest-established in high favour and honour with the emperor, his native master-endowed with a grant of large possessions in the New World he had the mortification to find himself possessing only military command. The political government was vested in a royal ordinance. His enterprising spirit led him to the discovery of the great Californian gulf, but his glory was on the wane; irritated and disappointed, he returned to Europe to appeal against the proceedings of the royal ordinance, but without success; and he, who had barbarously tortured the gallant emperor of Mexico, died twenty-six years afterwards of a broken heart, A. D. 1547, in the 62nd year of his age.

Abstracting the interest which attended the discovery and first conquest of Mexico, or New Spain, the historian finds a tame succession of events, which claim but a very vague notice. From the year 1535 to 1808 there was a succession of fifty viceroys, one alone an American by birth. At the latter period a spirit broke forth, elicited by centuries of oppression and exclusive favour to Europeans, which led the Mexicans to offer resistance to the disunion of Spain. The dissensions were headed by Hidalgo, an enthusiastic patriot, who was proclaimed generalissimo, Sen

tember 17, 1810. He unfortunately halted in his advance towards the capital, which gave the royalists time to rally, and enabled them to defeat his intentions a few months, and put him to death. But with him the spirit of independence vanished not. Morelos, a priest, assumed the command, and several princes were completely ensured to the side of liberty. A congress of forty members was called, but after the defeat and execu tion of Morelos, it was dissolved by General Teran, who succeeded him. After languishing for some time, the revolt was entirely quelled in 1819. The change of system introduced into Spain by the cortes alarmed the ecclesiastics in Mexico, who, for their defence, elected Iturbide, under whom a bloodless revolution was effected, and Mexico maintained in all its rights, independent of the Spanish dominion, A. D. 1822. After an usurpation of the title of emperor for little more than one year, Iturbide was compelled to lay down his usurpation, and he retired to Leghorn.

A federal government was now formed, and sworn to, February 24, 1824. Still commotions arose, in one of which Iturbide, who had been induced to return, lost his life. Thenceforward the government has been almost in a continual turmoil, adverse parties fighting for the rule, and alternately overthrowing each other. The generals Pedrazzo, Guerrero, Arenas, Arista, Urrea, and others, rapidly succeeded in grasping after the shadow of power, were exalted, and debased. Bravo, Bustamente, and Santa Ana, more successful because more unscrupulous tyrants, managed for a time to monopolize what there was of authority. Each of them being in turn banished, General Herrera was, in 1845, elected president

Y

SOUTH AMERICA.

PERU.

THE Peruvians have strange traditions that their progenitors were instructed in the arts of government and society by a man and woman, named Manco Capac and Mama Oello, from an island in a lake south of Peru. Under their instructions their kingdom was established, the royal family instituted, and success and power heaped upon them. This was about the thirteenth century; and previous to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1524, there had been fourteen successive monarchs or incas. On the arrival of the Europeans, Huana Capac was the reigning inca, who was taken prisoner and put to death by Pizarro, the discoverer of the country, although he had paid as much gold for his ransom as filled the place of his confinement. Pizarro likewise defeated his successor, and was created marquis of Atibellos, with large possessions in his conquest. His associate, Almagro, was also amply rewarded.

The city of Lima was founded by Pizarro, in 1533, but the Peruvians again took up arms under their inca, Manco Capac, and obtained some successes. A division took place between Pizarro and Almagro, the latter of whom having sustained a defeat, was taken prisoner and beheaded by his conqueror; who, two years afterward, was assassinated by Almagro's party. Various insurrections ensued with various successes, in which were conspicuous Vasco de Castro, Blasco Vela, Gonzales Pizarro, and Pedro de la Gasca, a priest. The royal authority of the Spaniards was at length established by the surrender and execution of the last inca. Tupac Amaru, by Toledo, the viceroy at Cuzco, A. D. 1562. Peru re

mained in a state of uninterrupted vassalage the Spanish crown, till the year 1782, when a descendant of the last inc., on being refused a title which had been granted his ancestor, Sayu Tu, ac, reared the standard of independence, round which the natives rallied with spirit, and in great numbers. For two years the war continued wit alternate success. At last Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui was defeated, and with the rest of his family, excepting his brother Diego, put to death. The surviving brother shortly afterward shared the same fate, on suspicion of being engaged in a revolt at Quito.

Peru escaped awhile the rising spirit of insubordination, which convulsed the other colonies; but in 1809 commotions ensued, and juntas were established in the cities of Quito and La Paz, but were suppressed. In 1813 the independents of Chili were subjugated, but their efforts were triumphant in 1817, under General San Martin, and Chili was not only evacuated by the Peruvian army, but sent an army to retaliate upon Peru. Lima capitulated on July 6, 1821, and San Martin held levees in the viceregal palace. The independence of Peru was solemnly proclaimed on the 28th of the same month, and San Martin was proclaimed protector. This office he laid down, after calling together a constituent and sovereign congress, on the 20th of September, 1822.

Disinterested as was this abdication, it was not followed by prosperity to the country. The inadequacy of the junta appointed by the congress soon became manifest: the patriots were defeated early in 1823; the congress was dissolved, anarchy predominated, and Lima surrendered to the Spanish troops in July of the same year. They were partially dispos sessed by Bolivar and the Chilians shortly afterward; and Peru, though safe from Spanish subjugation, was like a vessel tossed by every casual wave, unsafe, and exposed to conflicting dangers.

CHILI.

THIS Country was subjugated in 1450, by the Peruvians, who retained possession of it till they were driven out by the Spaniards under Almagro, in 1535. The Spaniards were driven out by a general rising of the natives three years afterward. Pizarro attempted to colonize the country in 1540, and though opposed by the natives of Copiapo, he succeeded in conquering several provinces, and founded the city of Santiago, February, 1541. In attempting to extend his conquest he exposed his settlement, for six years, to the strong and repeated attacks of the Mapochians, in whose district Santiago was. His lieutenant, Pedro de Valdivia, to whom this extension was entrusted, made the Promancians his allies, and, surmounting various attacks and oppositions from the natives, founded the cities of Concepcion, Imperial, and Valdivia. He was shortly afterward defeated by his old enemies the Araucanians, who took him prisoner, and he was at length despatched by an old chief with the blow of a club.

These Araucanians kept the new colonies for several years in a continual state of alarm and distress; and so far succeeded in avenging their former defeats, as in 1598 to capture Vallansa, Valdivia, Imperial and other towns, and form the cities of Concepcion and Chillar. Nor were these the only losses sustained by the Spaniards. The Dutch plundered Chiloe, and massacred the garrison. The feuds between the Araucanians and Spaniards were settled by a treaty of peace in 1641, which lasted for fourteen years; then came a war of ten years, and another peace. In 1722 a conspiracy for the extirpation of the whites was happily frustrated. The colonists were gathered into towns, the country divided into provinces, and several new cities founded by the governor Don Josef Manto,